MADONNA  AND  CHILD 


By  Courtesy  of  J.  W.  Hughes,  Detroit. 


STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

A  MANUAL  FOR 
MOTHERS  AND  MOTHERS'  CLUBS 


BT 

JULIA  CLAKK  HALLAM 


CHICAGO  NEW  YOEK 

ROW,  PETERSON  AND  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1913 
ROW,  PETERSON  &  COMPANY 


DEDICATION 

To  Mrs.  Florence  Russell  and  each  and  every  member  of 
the  Mothers'  Child  Study  Club  of  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  whose 
love  and  patience  in  cooperative  study,  made  this  book  pos- 
sible, it  is  affectionately  dedicated. 

JULIA  CLARK  HALLAM. 


601395 


PREFACE 

During  the  past  twelve  years,  in  connection  with  the 
work  of  Mothers'  Child  Study  clubs,  I  have  spoken  many 
times  to  audiences  composed  of  mothers.  Among  the 
things  which  have  impressed  me  most  strongly  in  this 
work  is  the  fact  that  there  are  hundreds  of  mothers,  espe- 
cially young  mothers,  who  appreciate  the  importance  of 
securing  a  broader  knowledge  of  their  children,  but  do 
not  know  where  to  look  for  it.  They  know  in  a  general 
way  that  experiments  and  investigations  are  being  made 
along  the  line  of  child  study  and  that  books  are  being 
written  upon  the  subject,  but  this  material  is  slow  in 
making  its  way  into  the  public  libraries  and  even  there 
it  is  often  not  in  a  form  as  to  be  really  available.  Per- 
haps the  first  question  asked  when  a  mothers'  club  has 
been  organized  is,  "What  book  shall  we  use  as  a  basis  for 
our  study  ?"  For  a  number  of  years  I  searched  for  such 
a  book  but  failed  to  find  it.  Most  of  the  volumes  on  child 
study  contain  valuable  material,  but  either  present  it  in 
too  technical  a  form  for  the  average  mother,  or  present 
too  much  of  the  theoretical  and  too  little  of  the  practical 
to  adapt  the  work  to  everyday  conditions.  At  last  I  deter- 
mined to  prepare  a  book  which  should  contain  such  mate- 
rial as  seemed  to  be  most  needed  and  most  often  called 
for,  a  book  which  should  answer  the  questions  that  have 
been  asked  me  most  frequently  by  mothers. 

The  first  question  which  the  mother  asks  concerning 

5 


6  PREFACE 

child  study  is  usually,  What  use  shall  I  make  of  it?  The 
mere  scientific  statement  of  the  results  of  investigations 
or  experiments  is  not  enough  for  her.  Her  standpoint 
is  always  practical.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  present 
volume  to  offer  anything  original,  but  simply  to  present 
certain  material  from  the  best  and  most  reliable  sources, 
in  such  a  form  as  to  be  immediately  helpful  to  the  busy 
mother.  In  other  words,  it  is  not  offered  as  a  contribution 
to  the  psychology  of  child  development,  but  rather  as  a 
popularization  of  physiological  and  pedagogical  principles 
already  familiar  to  students  in  this  field. 

The  arrangement  of  the  material  is,  from  the  view- 
point of  the  scientists,  open  to  criticism — for  to  classify 
children  by  age  is  not  a  strictly  scientific  procedure.  The 
age  classification,  however,  was  adopted  in  the  belief  that 
it  is  the  more  practical  for  the  present  purpose.  The  fact 
which  every  mother  knows  about  her  child  is  his  age. 
Under  the  present  arrangement,  she  will  be  directed  with- 
out loss  of  time  to  the  chapters  which  contain  what  she 
is  seeking. 

It  may  be  noted  that,  in  view  of  the  many  sources 
from  which  the  material  of  this  book  has  been  drawn, 
there  are  comparatively  few  quotation  marks.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that,  in  most  cases,  it  has  seemed  necessary  to 
adapt  the  material  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  the  pur- 
pose of  the  book.  I  trust,  however,  that  there  has  been 
no  failure  to  give  full  credit  to  each  and  every  author 
from  whom  the  ideas  or  data  have  been  drawn.  For 
the  most  part  the  references  will  be  found  at  the  foot  of 
the  page.  In  some  chapters,  however,  the  entire  discus- 
sion has  been  based  upon  the  work  of  one  or  more  authors. 


PREFACE  7 

The  Beginnings  (with  tables)  is  thus  based  upon  the  work 
of  Dr.  J.  P.  C.  Griffith;  Language  Development  upon 
that  of  Dr.  M.  V.  O'Shea;  Physical  Development  upon 
that  of  Francis  Warner,  Stuart  H.  Rowe,  and  Professor 
J.  M.  Tyler;  Foods  and  Feeding,  Professor  R.  H.  Chit- 
tenden;  Psychology,  Professors  J.  R.  Angell,  William 
James,  and  C.  H.  Judd;  Imitation,  Professor  J.  M.  Bald- 
win; Adolescence,  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Professor  E.  G. 
Lancaster,  Mary  Wood  Allen,  Professor  J.  M.  Tyler,  and 
Dr.  W.  B.  Forbush.  JULIA  CLARK  HALLAM. 

University  of  Chicago,  1913. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I.    WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS n 

Sec.  i.    Earliest  Conditions  and  Their  Requirements n 

Sec.  2.    Food  for  the  Baby  16 

Sec.  3.     Every   Day   Problems 21 

Sec.  4.    The  Baby's  Teeth   27 

Sec.  5.    Important  Data   29 

Sec.  6.    The  Baby's  Mind   34 

CHAPTER  II.    THE  PHYSICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD  FROM 

Two  TO  SEVEN  YEARS 39 

.  Sec.  I.    Introductory   39 

Sec.  2.     Nutrition    41 

^^  Sec.  3.     Signs  of  Good  and  Bad  Nourishment 55 

Sec.  4.    Eyes,  Ear  and  Throat 58 

Sec.  5.    The  Nervous  Child   61 

Sec.  6.    Fatigue   66 

CHAPTER  III.    THE  MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD  FROM 

Two  TO  SEVEN  YEARS 68 

Sec.  i.    How  the  Mind  Grows 68 

Sec.  2.     Some  Things  Which  Prevent  Normal  Development  74 

Sec.  3.    Avenues  of  Approach  to  the  Child's  Mind 76 

x  Sec.  4.    Language  as  a  Sign  of  Brain  Development 79 

Sec.  5.     Play  as  a  Factor  in  Mental  Development 90 

Sec.  6.     Instincts    07 

Sec.  7.     School   Life    109 

CHAPTER  IV.    THE  PHYSICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD  "FROM 

SEVEN  TO  TWELVE  YEARS 116 

Sec.  i.    General  Physical  Condition 116 

Sec.  2.    The   Muscular   System    121 

Sec.  3.    The   Eyes    ,.,,..  124 


I0  CONTENTS                                      PAGE 

Sec.  4.    The  Ears  125 

Sec.  5.    The  Nose  and  Throat   126 

Sec.  6.    The  Teeth  128 

Sec.  7.    Interaction  of   Mind   and   Body 131 

Sec.  8.    Parent  and  Teacher    142 

CHAPTER  V.    THE  MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD  FROM 

SEVEN  TO  TWELVE  YEARS 150 

Sec.  i.    Points  of  Contact  Between  Mother  and  Child 150 

Sec.  2.    Some  Prominent  Mental  Traits  of  this  Period 157 

Sec.  3.     Memory    166 

Sec.  4.    Children's  Faults  170 

Sec.  5.    Truth  and  Untruth   182 

CHAPTER  VI.    CHILD  TRAINING 190 

Sec.  i.    The  Parents'  Equipment  for  Training 190 

Sec.  2.    Imitation,  the   First   Training 192 

Sec.  3.    Training  Through  Habit  Formation 196 

Sec.  4.    The  Will  201 

Sec.  5.    Discipline    206 

Sec.  6.    Religious  Training  215 

CHAPTER  VII.    THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY 225 

Sec.  i.    The  Approach  of  Adolescence 225 

Sec.  2.    The  Parents'  Duty  to  the  Adolescent  Boy 231 

Sec.  3.    General  Characteristics  of  the  Period 233 

Sec.  4.    Later  Physical  Changes   236 

Sec.  5.    The  Boy's  Greatest  Danger 239 

Sec.  6.    How  to  Conquer  this  Disastrous  Habit 242 

Sec.  7.    Mental  Phases  of  Adolescence 246 

Sec.  8.    Later  Spiritual  Changes 251 

CHAPTER  VIII.    THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL   255 

Sec.  i.    The  Development  of  Sex 255 

Sec.  2.    The  Mother's  Duty  to  the  Adolescent  Girl 258 

Sec.  3.    The  Health  of  the  Adolescent  Girl 263 

Sec.  4.    Mental  Changes  During  Adolescence   269 

Sec.  5.    Spiritual  Development  at  Adolescence 273 

Sec.  6.    The  Education  of  Girls 276 

Sec.  7.     General  Summary 278 


Studies    in    Child   Development 

CHAPTER  I 

WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS 
i.    EARLIEST  CONDITIONS  AND  THEIR  REQUIREMENTS 

Child  study  is  full  of  meaning.  It  affects  the  life  of 
the  individual,  the  family,  the  state.  It  has  special  sig- 
nificance for  the  mother,  since  not  one  single  fact  con- 
nected with  the  child  from  either  the  physical,  mental, 
or  spiritual  standpoint  is  unimportant.  Child  study  deals 
with  these  facts,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the 
child's  life.  "Carry  him  to  his  mother,"  said  the  Shu- 
namite  of  old.  Many  people  are  saying  the  same  thing 
today.  Believing  as  we  do  that  child  study  by  mothers 
is  one  of  the  fundamental  needs  of  the  present  time,  we 
may  properly  begin  our  study  with  the  most  fundamental 
personage  connected  with  the  study,  namely,  the  baby. 
Let  us  then  take  him  as  soon  as  he  has  announced  his 
arrival  by  a  hoarse  little  squeal  which  is  not  really  a  cry, 
but  simply  the  reaction  of  the  atmosphere  upon  his  lungs. 

First  Needs.  The  first  needs  of  the  baby  are  entirely  • 
physical.  There  is  no  need  to  worry  about  him,  for 
everything  that  can  be  done  will  be  better  done,  if  the 
mother  will  keep  herself  calm  and  quiet.  The  first  thing 
to  do  for  the  baby  is  to  anoint  him  thoroughly  with 
sweet  oil.  After  this,  wrap  him  carefully  in  a  soft,  warm- 

11 


12  StUblES*'  IN'  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

cover,  and  lay  him  in  a  warm  corner  to  experience  that 
first  long  quiet  sleep,  which  means  much  in  many  ways. 
Now,  while  the  baby  is  resting,  let  us  take  just  a  moment 
to  consider  what  we  may  look  for  in  him  when  he 
wakes  up. 

Points  to  be  Noted.  The  points  to  be  particularly  noted 
in  the  child's  body  are  as  follows  :l  The  size  and  shape 
of  the  head;  the  diamond-shaped  soft  spot  on  the  top  of 
the  head  and  the  smaller  one  at  the  back;  the  girth  of 
the  chest  and  the  breadth  across  the  shoulders;  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  trunk;  the  length  and  shape  of  the 
limbs ;  the  length  and  shape  of  the  entire  body.  Finally, 
the  scales  will  have  to  be  resorted  to,  to  see  how  much 
the  body  weighs.  Let  us  consider  these  points  in  order. 

The  Head.  The  head  will  be  large  in  proportion  to  the 
rest  of  the  body,  and  will  usually  exhibit  a  gradual  slope 
from  just  above  the  eyes  to  the  extreme  point  of  the 
crown.  When  it  assumes  its  normal  shape,  as  it  will  in 
a  few  days,  it  will  measure  about  thirteen  and  one-half 
inches,  just  above  the  ears.  The  contour  of  the  head  will 
be  round  or  oval.  The  brain  is  relatively  large  at  birth. 
It  forms  over  twelve  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  body  at 
this  time,  as  against  about  two  per  cent  in  the  adult.2 

The  Soft  Spots.  The  soft  spots  on  the  top  and  back 
of  the  head  are  known  as  the  anterior  and  posterior  fon- 
tanelles.  In  these  places,  only  the  skin  and  a  thin  mem- 
brane covers  the  brain  which  can  be  seen  pulsating  through 
them.  The  larger  one  of  the  two  areas  is  the  only  one 
which  needs  to  concern  the  mother.  This  should  measure 

1  Dr.  J.  P.  C.  Griffith,  Care  of  the  Baby,  Chapter  n. 
3  Prof.  J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  71, 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  13 

about  one  inch  from  edge  to  edge,  and  must  always  be  > 
protected  with  the  greatest  care.  It  should  neither  be 
depressed  nor  bulging;  a  depression  indicates  weakness 
or  lack  of  development,  while  a  bulging  is  sometimes  a 
sign  of  water  on  the  brain.  If  either  of  these  conditions 
occurs  it  is  best  to  seek  the  advice  of  a  physician  as  soon 
as  the  discovery  is  made. 

The  Skin.     The  baby's  skin  is  delicate  and  covered  * 
with  a  soft  down.    Its  normal  color  is  a  reddish  pink.    If  * 
the  skin  is  mottled  or  bluish,  the  baby  is  either  cold  or 
ill.    During  the  first  two  weeks,  the  outside  skin  with  its 
down  is  shed,  leaving  the  under  skin  soft  and  rose-colored* 
Dr.  Griffith  suggests  that  if  a  faint  yellowish  tinge  comes 
over  the  flesh  at  about  the  end  of  the  first  week,  it  may 
indicate  a  touch  of  jaundice,  but  need  occasion  no  alarm. 
Eyebrows  and  eyelashes  are  not  present. 

The  Chest.     The  girth  of  the  chest,  which  should  be  • 
taken  just  above  the  nipples,  will  be  practically  the  same 
as  the  size  of  the  head.     Dr.  Griffith's  table  shows  the 
chest  to  be  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  head  at  first.     The* 
girth  of  the  head  and  of  the  chest  remains  about  equal  for 
the  first  two  years.1     The  breadth  across  the  shoulders - 
should  be  about  one- fourth  the  height.     The  chest  girth  * 
is  nearly  two-thirds  the  height  at  birth.2 

Lower  Trunk.  We  next  come  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  trunk.  It  goes  without  saying  that  this  is  a  very 
important  part  of  the  outfit  of  the  little  traveler,  con- 
taining things  which  are  more  vital  to  him  than  the 
conventional  contents  of  a  traveler's  luggage.  In  this 

1  Prof.  J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  115. 

2  Prof.  J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  82. 


I4  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

trunk,  which  is  nearly  cylindrical,  the  baby  carries  his 
intestines,  his  lungs,  kidneys,  liver  and  heart.  These 
organs  all  have  important  work  to  do  from  the  very 
start,  and  must  not  on  any  account  be  interfered  with. 

•  The  intestines  and  liver  are  relatively  large.     *  This  is 

•  what  makes  the  new  baby's  stomach  protrude.    The  heart 
is  heavy  as  compared  with  the  weight  of  the  body. 

The  Limbs.  The  limbs  are  relatively  short  in  propor- 
tion to  the  trunk,  the  legs  measuring  slightly  more  than 
the  trunk  in  length.  These  little  legs  are  always  crooked 
at  first,  and  have  the  power  of  bending  so  that  the  soles 
of  the  feet  easily  come  together.  The  length  of  the  body 
is  from  seventeen  to  twenty  inches.  Dr.  Griffith's  table 
makes  the  average  length  nineteen  inches. 
4  Weight.  As  to  weight,  if  the  child  is  a  boy,  it  will 

•  weigh  at  birth  from  seven  to  ten  pounds;  if  a  girl,  from 
six  to  nine  pounds.     Dr.  Griffith  places  the  average  weight 
at  seven  pounds  and  eight  ounces,  including  both  boys 
and  girls. 

Special  Senses  at  Birth.  Among  the  special  senses, 
'the  taste  is  the  first  to  be  established  after  birth;  then 
'comes  the  power  to  smell.  Every  new-born  child  is  com- 

•  pletely  deaf,  and  is  wholly  incapable  of  seeing.    There  is 
in  some  cases  a  response  of  the  organization  to  the  vibra- 
tions caused  by  a  loud  noise.     This  is  often  interpreted 
as  ability  to  hear.     Also,  there  is  a  sensitiveness  in  the 

'  eye  to  a  strong  light,  which  is  taken  by  some  to  indicate 
the  power  of  sight.  The  sensation  which  comes  first 
to  the  new-born  infant  through  his  ears  and  eyes  is  all 
exceedingly  vague  and  confused. 

1 W.  Preyor,  Mental  Developments  of  the  Child,  pp.  2,  3,  5,  7,  8. 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  15 

It  will  also  be  of  interest  to  the  mother  to  know  that, 
in  the  case  of  a  baby  born  from  four  to  six  weeks  too 
soon,  the  special  senses,  particularly  those  of  sight  and 
hearing,  develop  much  more  slowly  than  in  the  case  of  a 
normal  infant.  However,  sight  and  hearing  develop 
rapidly.  The  vision  is  nearly  perfect  at  two  months.. 

Keep  Baby  Clean.  For  the  new-born  baby  the  first 
bath  should  be  a  gentle  rubbing  with  olive  or  sweet  oil. 
Continue  this  treatment  until  the  cord  comes  off.  The 
oil  is  better  for  the  skin  than  water,  and  also  serves  as 
nourishment  for  the  baby's  system.  Wash  only  the  head 
and  genital  parts  with  soap  and  water,  using  lukewarm 
water  and  castile  soap.  After  bathing  the  parts,  anoint 
them  carefully  with  a  mild  solution  of  boric  acid.  Great 
care  is  needed  in  cleansing  the  eyes,  ears,  nose  and  mouth. 
For  this  purpose,  use  the  boric  solution  just  mentioned, 
applied  with  an  absolutely  clean  and  sterilized  piece  of 
raw  cotton.  The  cotton  can  be  sterilized  by  placing  it  in 
a  hot  oven  for  a  few  minutes.  Use  a  fresh  piece  of  cotton 
for  each  eye.  Rub  the  body  carefully  about  the  navel 
cord.  Lay  the  cord  to  one  side  and  dress  it  with  boracic 
acid  powder  and  antiseptic  cotton.  If  there  is  a  tendency 
on  the  part  of  the  cord  to  become  dry  and  hard,  apply  a 
bit  of  vaseline  to  the  dry  portions.  The  cord  should  slip 
off  about  the  fifth  or  sixth  day.  If  there  is  a  slight  dis- 
charge from  the  navel  after  the  cord  has  come  off,  keep 
it  carefully  cleansed  and  dressed  as  above.  If  the  first 
rectal  movements  cause  soreness,  as  is  often  the  case,  this 
may  easily  be  overcome  by  the  application  of  a  soft  linen 
cloth  covered  with  aristol  powder. 

Clothing.     After  the  bath  wrap  the  little  body,  not  too. 


16  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

tightly,  with  an  unhemmed  flannel  band,  six  or  eight 
inches  wide  and  long  enough  to  reach  around  the  stomach 
at  least  twice.  The  diaper  of  bird's  eye,  not  too  bulky, 
and  a  shirt  of  soft  woolen  material  come  next  to  the 
band.  A  petticoat  of  outing  flannel,  sleeveless  but  high- 
necked  and  extending  five  or  six  inches  below  the  feet, 
and  a  gown  of  the  same  material  and  length,  but  having 
sleeves,  will  complete  .this  first  costume.  It  is  always 
well  to  keep  the  body  wrapped  in  a  soft  comforter  for 
the  first  few  days,  even  though  the  weather  is  not  cold. 

2.    FOOD  FOR  BABY 

We  come  now  to  the  feeding  of  the  baby.  Mothers 
who  are  able  to  supply  the  natural  nourishment  which 
the  child  needs  are  most  fortunate.  Regularity  of  feed- 
ing with  frequent  drinks  of  water  between  times  is  always 
important. 

Substitutes  for  Mother's  Milk.  If  artificial  food  is 
required,  either  wholly,  or  in  part,  each  mother  must 
make  a  careful  study  of  her  own  baby  with  reference  to 
his  particular  condition  and  needs.  There  are  many  ex- 
cellent baby  foods  available,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  select 
any  one  as  best  adapted  to  all  cases.  But  do  not  let  the 
baby  fret  himself  thin  because  he  is  hungry.  Something 
is  wrong  if  he  is  not  gaining  in  weight.  But  even  if  he 
is  gaining  in  weight,  the  mother  must  be  on  her  guard, 
for  some  of  the  artificial  foods  tend  to  produce  fat  rather 
than  solid  flesh  and  bone,  and  the  baby  may  not  be  thriv- 
ing as  well  as  he  seems  to  be. 

Again,  some  of  the  most  popular  substitutes  for 
mother's  milk  abound  in  starch,  for  the  digestion  of 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  17 

which  there  is,  in  early  infancy,  only  imperfect  provision. 
Foods  which  are  entirely  free  from  starch  are  more  desir-  • 
able  than  those  containing  it.  The  mother  may  satisfy 
herself  as  to  whether  or  not  starch  is  present  in  any  par- 
ticular food  by  dissolving  a  portion  of  the  food  in  hot 
water  and  adding  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of  iodine  in  a 
tablespoon  of  water.  If  starch  is  present  a  blue  color 
will  appear.1  An  experienced  nurse  or  physician  must 
be  relied  upon  ultimately  to  decide  which  food  is  best. 

Dr.  Griffith  thinks  that,  in  spite  of  the  many  infants' 
foods  now  upon  the  market,  the  safest  substitute  for 
mother's  milk  can  be  prepared  at  home.  Below  is  given 
the  formula  which  he  recommends.  This,  of  course, 
requires  the  best  of  everything  in  the  way  of  ingredients, 
and  can  be  made  of  varying  strength  to  suit  the  demands 
of  the  child. 

GRIFFITH'S  FORMULA  FOR  MILK  MIXTURE2 

Milk    ., 2     ounces 

Cream,  skimmed  (16  per  cent  fat) iy2  ounces 

Lime  water y2  ounce 

Milk  sugar y2  ounce 

Water    $y2  ounces 

(One  ounce  equals  two  tablespoon fuls) 

Care  of  Food.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  • 
the  necessity  of  keeping  the  baby's  food  free  from  infec- 
tion. Even  sterilized  milk  will  not  remain  sterilized  under 
exposure,  and  if  it  has  once  become  contaminated,  steriliz- 
ing will  not  always  free  it  from  bacterial  poisons.  The 
intestine  of  the  baby  is  peculiarly  sensitive  to  the  pres- 

1  Griffith,  Care  of  the  Baby,  p.  160. 

2  Same,  p.  143. 


!8  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

ence  of  bacteria,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  babies  suc- 
cyrnb  to  intestinal  diseases  is  a  matter  of  record.  Con- 
firmation of  this  is  found  in  the  tremendous  death  rates 
of  babies  in  the  crowded  districts  of  our  large  cities. 
Specialists  who  have  made  a  study  of  the  subject  declare 
that  the  large  death  rate  among  babies  is  due  principally 
to  impure  milk. 

Since  the  matter  of  perfectly  pure  milk  is  of  such 
supreme  importance  to  the  well-being  of  the  baby,  the 
mother,  when  she  is  uncertain  as  to  the  quality  of  the 
milk  which  she  must  use,  should  sterilize  it.  The  prin- 
ciple of  sterilizing  is  the  early  killing  of  germs  present 
in  the  milk  and  the  preventing  of  other  germs  from  enter- 
ing or  developing.  Milk  properly  sterilized  and  protected 
will  retain  its  purity  for  months.  Boiling  the  milk  de- 
stroys germs,  but  it  also  changes  the  taste  of  it  and  affects 
the  chemical  character  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  less 
digestible.  Sterilizing  can  be  done  most  thoroughly  with 
the  regular  apparatus  made  for  the  purpose.  However, 
in  the  absence  of  a  sterilizer,  the  following  method  is 
suggested :  Place  the  milk  mixture,  the  formula  for  which 
has  already  been  given,  in  bottles  tightly  corked  with  raw 
cotton  which  shall  not  come  in  contact  with  the  milk 
itself.  Heat  a  kettle  of  water  to  the  boiling  point,  remove 
it  from  the  stove,  place  the  bottles  of  milk  in  the  kettle, 
cover  all  closely,  and  allow  it  to  remain  forty-five  minutes. 
At  the  end  of  this  time  cool  the  bottles  as  rapidly  as 
possible  and  keep  them  on  ice  until  used.  It  is  well,  also, 
to  boil  and  cool  the  water  which  the  baby  drinks.  The 
water  should  be  kept  covered  after  it  is  boiled,  just  as 
the  milk  is. 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  19 

Times  of  Feeding.     All  physicians  advocate  regularity  * 
of  feeding,  whether  the  baby  is  nursed  or  fed  from  the 
bottle.1    Once  in  three  hours  is  sufficient  for  the  first  two* 
or  three  months.    After  this,  the  interval  may  gradually  • 
be  increased  to  four  hours.     The  longer  periods  between 
feeding  conduce  to  the  health  of  both  mother  and  child. 
The  baby  will  have  less  colic  and  less  tendency  to  throw  - 
up  his  food;  the  mother's  milk  will  last  longer.    It  is  also 
best  to  skip  one  night  feeding  from  the  first,  say  the  one 
about  three  in  the  morning.     It  is  advisable  to  awaken 
the  baby  if  asleep  when  his  time  for  feeding  comes.    As 
to  the  amount  of  food  a  baby  should  be  given  at  one  time, 
the  mother  should  remember  that  at  birth  the  stomach 
holds  two  tablespoonfuls.      The  stomach  could  hardly 
increase  in  size  at  such  a  rate  as  to  comfortably  dispose  of 
the  great  bottles  of  milk  which  are  often  given  to  the 
baby  during  the  first  few  months.    Estimating  two  table-  • 
spoons  as  an  ounce,  the  following  program  is  advised:  * 
2  For  the  first  two  weeks  from  two  to  four  tablespoons  at 
a  meal ;  from  one  to  three  months,  from  four  to  eight 
tablespoonfuls;  from  three  to  five  months,  eight  to  six- 
teen tablespoonfuls.     These  amounts  should  be  modified 
in  the  case  of  an  unusually  large  or  small  baby. 

Discontinue  Night  Feeding.  When  the  baby  is  about  - 
four  months  old — some  nurses  suggest  an  earlier  date — 
it  is  wise  to  stop  feeding  him  at  night.  There  is  usually 
quite  a  struggle  before  the  question  of  night  feeding  is 
settled,  and  if  the  child  is  persistent  and  "spunky/'  the 
mother  may  find  it  necessary  to  exhibit  similar  qualities 

1  Griffith,  Care  of  the  Baby,  p.  153. 

2  Same,  p.  134. 


20  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

in  order  to  carry  her  point.  But  those  mothers  who  have 
succeeded  in  establishing  this  habit  find  themselves  more 
than  repaid  for  the  effort.  Of  course,  each  mother  will 
have  her  own  way  of  doing  this,  but  the  experience  of 
one  mother  may  be  suggestive,  especially  as  it  was  tried 
successfully  with  several  different  members  of  a  numerous 
family.  Feed  the  baby  when  you  retire  yourself,  even 
though  you  waken  him  to  do  so.  Then  lay  him  down 
in  his  crib  and  prepare  yourself  for  a  siege.  Have  your 
slippers  and  kimono  ready  and  be  sure,  if  the  weather  is 
cold,  that  there  is  one  room  into  which  you  can  take  the 
baby  when  he  wakes  up  for  his  usual  nightly  meal.  Be 
prepared  to  heat  some  water.  It  may  be  wise  to  sweeten 
the  water  a  little  if  the  baby  refuses  to  take  it  without  its 
being  sweetened.  When  he  wakes  up  to  be  fed,  offer  him 
only  warm  water  and  hold  him  until  he  falls  asleep  again. 
This  sounds  simple  enough,  but  there  have  been  cases 
where  the  cold  gray  dawn  of  the  morning  crept  in  at  the 
window  before  the  baby  gave  up.  Some  babies  will  cry 
as  long  and  loud  as  their  strength  admits  and  will  slap 
away  the  cup  or  bottle  of  water  when  they  find  it  does 
'not  contain  the  accustomed  food.  Two  or  possibly  three 
nights  may  be  needed  before  everything  goes  smoothly. 
Let  the  morning  meal  come  about  six  or  seven  o'clock. 

Gradual  Changes  in  Method  and  Diet.  Do  not  let  the 
baby  use  the  bottle  after  he  is  a  year  old.  With  a  little 
patient  effort  he  can  be  taught  to  drink  from  a  cup,  which 
is  much  more  hygienic  and  satisfactory.  Begin  by  plac- 
ing the  food  in  the  baby's  mouth  with  a  teaspoon.  Most 
of  it  will  run  out  at  first,  and  for  a  day  or  two  the  little 
one  may  not  seem  to  get  enough  to  eat.  But  it  will  not 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  21 

be  long  before  he  not  only  learns  how  to  take  the  food 
from   the   spoon  but  to  drink   directly   from  the   cup. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  first  year  a  little  fat  is  a  desirable  • 
addition  to  the  baby's  diet.    This  may  come  in  the  way  • 
of  an  occasional  piece  of  bacon  to  suck.     He  will  also 
profit  by  the  use  of  bread  and  butter  with  his  meals. 

Second  Year.    The  diet  of  the  baby  during  his  second  • 
year  will  probably  include  a  goodly  portion  of  milk.    But  • 
he  will  also  enjoy  bread  in  the  milk  and  some  of  the 
numerous  good  breakfast  foods  which  are  now  on  the 
market.     Soft  boiled  eggs,  rice,  tapioca,  and  sago  are* 
excellent.     Dish  gravy  and  beef  juice  are  recommended. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  second  year,  a  little. meat  and  fish 
may  be  added  to  the  child's  dietary.1 

3.    EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS 

Keeping  Baby  Warm.     As  the  days  of  the  baby's  life  / 
stretch  out  into  weeks  and  months  many  problems  arise. 
Perhaps  none  of  these  is  more  perplexing  than  that  of 
keeping  the  baby  warm.    The  little  body  contains  a  large 
amount  of  water.    This  is  nature's  provision  for  the  dif- 
fusion of  nourishment  to  the  tissues.    It  increases  growth 
but  decreases  the  power  of  resistance  to  cold.     The  sur-  t 
face  of  the  body  is  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  and 
efficiency  of  the  circulatory  system,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
get  heat  to  the  extremities.    This  is  practically  a  vegeta-  • 
tive  period  of  life  and  the  most  important  processes  are 
those  of  digestion,  assimilation,  and  the  removal  of  waste. 
Very  little  of  the  food  which  the  baby  takes  is  used  for 

1 J.  P.  C.  Griffith,  Care  of  the  Baby,  p.  164. 


22  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

fuel.1  When  the  temperature  is  warm  for  an  adult,  the 
baby  will  be  cold.  External  heat  must  constantly  be 
provided. 

Some  babies  show  that  they  are  cold  by  looking  blue, 
but  many  babies  suffer  from  cold  even  when  they  are 
sufficiently  well-nourished  not  to  look  blue.  Any  indica- 
tion of  this  condition  should  receive  the  prompt  attention 
of  the  mother.  Sometimes  there  is  not  sufficient  clothing, 
or  the  clothing  is  too  tight.  This  can  easily  be  remedied 
by  putting  more  on  and  exercising  care  in  its  adjustment, 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  band.  But  often  the  baby 
needs  more  warmth  than  can  be  supplied  even  by  an  abun- 
dance of  well-placed  clothing.  When  this  is  the  case,  a 
hot  water  bottle  is  a  safe  and  reliable  resource. 

N  Hot  Water  Bottle.  No  pre-natal  outfit  is  complete 
which  does  not  contain  a  small-sized  rubber  bottle.  This 
should  be  encased  in  a  cover  of  soft  texture.  When  thus 
protected  on  the  outside,  and  partially  filled  with  warm 
(not  hot)  water  and  placed  upon  the  baby's  stomach  and 
bowels,  it  will  bring  untold  hours  of  comfort  and  rest.  A* 

•  bag  at  the  soles  of  the  feet  will  often  prove  helpful.  This 
use  of  hot  water  bottles  is  especially  urged  upon  the 
mother  during  the  night.  The  bedroom  grows  cold  and 
the  circulation  of  the  sleeping  infant  is  not  vigorous.  By 
the  use  of  the  bottles,  the  baby  is  kept  comfortable  and 
quiet.  Put  the  bottles  in  the  cab  when  you  take  the  baby 
out  of  doors  in  cold  weather.  Fresh  air  is  a  real  need 
to  the  child  before  the  physical  organism  is  adapted  to 
resist  the  cold.  You  may  safely  take  him  out  for  his 
airing  in  all  but  the  coldest  days,  if  you  have  the  bottles 

1 J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  86. 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  23 

at  his  stomach  and  feet.  Also,  if  thus  equipped,  baby  will 
have  a  good  chance  of  escaping  the  paroxysm  of  pain 
and  crying  which  so  often  follows  the  delight  of  the 
outing. 

Warmth  While  Bathing.     When  bathing  the  baby,  too, 
the  question  of  warmth  is  an  important  one.    Some  babies 
are  so  sensitive  to  cold  that  the  removal  of  the  clothing 
brings  on  a  chill  which  causes  pain,  with  the  result  that 
the  little  one  shrieks  during  the  entire  bath  and  until  he 
is  dressed,  warmed,  and  fed.     Eighty  degrees  is  not  too  * 
warm  for  the  room  where  the  baby  is  being  bathed.    Keep  - 
the  baby  naked  for  the  shortest  possible  time  and  bathe 
and  wipe  portions  of  the  body  consecutively. 

Vomiting.  Mothers  are  sometimes  alarmed  by  baby's 
vomiting.  There  is  no  cause  to  worry  unless  the  vomiting  • 
is  excessive,  and  the  expelled  food  smells  sour.1  The 
muscles  closing  the  stomach  are  weak  and  if  too  large  a 
supply  of  food  is  taken  the  vomiting  is  the  natural  way  of 
restoring  proper  balance. 

Constipation.  Watch  the  baby's  bowels  from  the  first. 
There  seems  to  be  more  tendency  to  constipation  when* 
the  food  is  artificial  than  when  it  is  natural.  However, 
I  know  one  baby  whose  tendency  to  constipation  during 
the  nursing  period  was  entirely  overcome  by  the  gradual 
use  of  artificial  food.  In  this  case,  the  mother  had  suf- 
fered for  weeks  before  the  baby's  birth  with  obstinate 
constipation.  Some  of  the  remedies  for  colic  are  consti- 
pating, but  not  all  of  them.  Peppermint  is  often  found 
to  be  so,  but  not  catnip.  An  enema  of  warm  water  con- 
taining a  little  calendula  is  often  effective.  Incidentally, 

1 J.  P.  C.  Griffith,  Care  of  the  Baby,  p.  120. 


24  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

let  me  say  the  latter  treatment  is  good  to  relieve  colic.  Do 
not  let  more  than  twenty- four  hours  pass  without  a  move- 
ment. The  use  of  mild  physic  is  better  than  the  dangers 
which  attend  constipation.  If  the  baby  continues  to  have 
this  tendency,  secure  from  your  family  physician  some 
mild  cathartic  and  use  it  when  necessary.  A  small  dose 
of  castor  oil  will  always  be  safe  and  helpful. 
*  Chafing.  If  the  baby  chafes,  apply  talcum  powder  and 
r  sweet  oil.  Mild  boracic  acid  is  very  healing,  as  is  also 
bismuth  powder.  All  of  the  things  suggested  here  are 
very  simple  and  can  do  no  harm. 

Nursery  Chair.  Regularity  in  the  use  of  the  nursery 
chair  is  one  of  the  things  which  all  mothers  seek.  When 
the  baby  is  strong  enough  to  sit  up  (he  may  be  held  up 
even  earlier  than  that),  place  him  upon  the  chair  after 
the  morning  bath  and  feeding.  If  his  bowels  are  likely 
to  move  at  other  times,  for  example  as  soon  as  he  awakens 
in  the  morning,  place  him  upon  the  chair  at  that  time. 
Be  careful  not  to  let  the  child  sit  too  long.  Toys  and 
simple  eatables,  which  are  allowed  only  at  this  time,  have 
helped  to  secure  the  desired  results.  As  the  baby  grows 
older,  especially  when  he  begins  to  walk  and  talk,  the 
mother's  own  ingenuity  will  suggest  proper  expedients 
to  secure  those  habits  of  cleanliness  and  regularity,  the 
establishment  of  which  is  simple  justice  to  the  child. 
%  First  Tears.  The  baby's  first  crying  is  not  attended 
with  tears.  The  tear  ducts  are  not  in  working  order  at 
first.  Even  when  the  tears  do  appear  they  are  not  a  sign 
of  grief.  When  the  tear  ducts  are  developing  and  becom- 
ing adjusted,  there  is  an  overflow  quite  unconnected  with 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  25 

emotion.    The  combination  of  real  tears,  prompted  by  real 
grief,  comes  a  little  later. 

Breathing.  The  establishment  of  proper  breathing  is 
an  important  factor  in  the  child's  well-being.  It  is  likely 
to  be  regular  during  sleep,  but  irregular  during  the  waking 
hours.  The  same  rule  holds  good  of  the  pulse  and  will 
probably  continue  as  the  child  grows  older.  Some  chil- 
dren have  a  way  of  holding  the  breath  for  an  appreciable 
length  of  time.  This  is  likely  to  startle  the  mother,  but 
it  is  done  unconsciously,  and  is  attended  with  no  danger. 
Breathing,  besides  its  function  of  respiration,  constitutes 
much  of  the  child's  first  exercise. 

Locomotion.  Locomotion  will  be  attempted  soon  after* 
the  first  half  year,  but  do  not  be  discouraged  if  many 
months  pass  before  success  is  achieved.  Watch  the  cloth- 
ing with  special  care  at  this  time,  and  be  sure  that  no  part 
of  the  body  is  impeded.  It  will  be  noticed  that  when 
the  baby  falls  he  is  likely  to  fall  into  a  sitting  position 
rather  than  upon  his  face.  This  is  because  the  muscles 
in  the  back  of  his  legs  are  stronger  than  those  in  front, 
and  so  tend  to  draw  him  down. 

The  impulse  to  grasp  and  climb  has  been  developing 
all  this  time,  because  strength  comes  to  the  arms  first.  « 
Many  babies  begin  their  locomotive  process  by  creeping 
backwards,  and  for  this  reason  learn  to  go  down  stairs 
more  easily  than  to  mount  them.  An  unfortunate  result 
of  this  tendency  to  creep  backwards  was  shown  in  the 
case  of  one  child  which  I  knew.  He  invariably  succeeded 
in  getting  himself  under  the  bed  and  usually  into  the  ex- 
treme corner.  He  did  not  know  enough  to  turn  around 
after  he  had  reached  the  wall,  neither  could  he  make  a 


26  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

single  forward  movement.  Not  knowing  what  else  to 
do,  he  would  proceed  to  exhibit  his  discomfort  by  setting 
up  a  howl  which  continued  until  such  time  as  his  mother 
or  some  other  interested  adult  would  assume  the  prostrate 
position  which  was  necessary  to  extricate  him. 

Clothing.  The  character  of  the  garments  which  com- 
pose the  baby's  wardrobe  will  depend  to  a  large  extent 
upon  the  individual  taste  of  the  mother.  Let  us  hope  for 
the  baby's  sake  that  the  clothing  will  be  sufficient  and 
suitable.  Consider  for  yourself  what  will  best  protect 
but  not  impede  the  tiny  soft  body.  The  clothing  should 
be  evenly  distributed  and  the  number  and  weight  of  the 
garments  necessary  will  depend  upon  the  time  of  the  year 
and  the  climate  in  which  the  baby  is  born.  There  should 
be  an  entirely  different  set  of  garments  for  night  and  day 
wear.  Woolen  materials  give  the  most  warmth  with  the 
least  weight.  If  the  baby's  skin  is  so  sensitive  as  to  be 
irritated  by  even  very  soft  wool,  then  let  an  outing  flannel 
or  stockinet  garment  come  first,  and  the  woolen  garment 
outside  of  that.  Even  the  first  clothing  should  be  only 
a  few  inches  longer  than  the  baby.  The  small  limbs 
ought  to  begin  to  move  very  soon,  and  to  move  a  great 
deal.  Long  heavy  garments  will  retard  development. 
Cover  the  little  feet  with  socks  or  stockings  of  such 
thickness  as  the  season  demands. 

Night  skirts  of  cotton  flannel,  low  neck  and  sleeveless, 
and  gowns  of  heavy,  outing  flannel  will  be  found  very 
serviceable,  as  the  constant  wetting  to  which  night  gar- 
ments are  subjected  discolors  flannel  and  causes  it  to 
become  stiff  and  hard. 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  27 

4.    THE  BABY'S  TEETH 

If  we  examine  the  baby's  mouth  when  he  is  nearing  his 
fourth  month  we  shall  find  that  the  anterior  edges  of  the 
gums  have  grown  slightly  broader  and  more  prominent. 
The  gums  may  possibly  be  a  little  red  and  inflamed.  Per- 
haps not  until  two  or  three  months  later  will  first  one  and 
then  a  second  tiny  tooth  be  noted  in  the  middle  of  the 
lower  jaw.  Teeth  come  in  groups  and  these  two  lower 
central  incisors  are  the  first  group  to  appear.  You  will 
have  to  wait  from  three  to  eight  weeks  before  seeing  any 
more  teeth. 

Second  Group.     When  the  next  group  appears,  it  will  • 
consist  of  four  teeth  instead  of  two,  and  they  will  be  in 
the  middle  of  the  upper  jaw.     They  are  the  four  upper  • 
incisors.     Of  course,  these  four  teeth  do  not  all  come 
through  the  gums  in  a  day  or  in  a  night.     They  simply 
come  near  enough  together  to  be  considered  as  one  group, 
their  coming  sometimes  being  separated  by  only  a  few 
days. 

Third  Group.  After  this,  the  period  of  waiting  will  be  , 
from  one  to  three  months  and  the  next  group  of  teeth 
will  number  six.  But  these  six  teeth  do  not  stand  to- 
gether in  the  mouth.  Appearing,  as  they  do,  at  intervals 
of  several  days  or  even  weeks,  the  mother  hardly  associ- 
ates them.  Two  of  the  number  of  this  third  group  are  - 
the  lower  lateral  incisors.  You  will  be  glad  to  see  them 
come,  for  they  will  help  to  fill  up  the  mouth  and  greatly 
improve  the  appearance  of  the  child.  The  other  four  are 
known  as  the  anterior  molars.  These  are  what  we  call 
double  teeth  and  one  stands  a  little  way  from  each  lateral 


28  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

incisor.  Then  there  is  another  rest  of  from  two  to  three 
months. 

'  Fourth  Group.  The  child  will  have  passed  his  eight- 
eenth month,  and  perhaps  several  more,  before  the  fourth 
group  makes  its  appearance.  The  group  consists  of  four 

i  sharp  pointed  canines  which  fill  the  little  gaps  left  between 

I  the  incisors  and  the  first  molars. 

Fifth  Group.  Then,  after  another  rest  of  from  two 
to  four  months,  the  careful  mother,  who  makes  it  a  point 
to  know  what  is  taking  place  in  the  child's  mouth,  will 
find  that  he  has  four  new  double  teeth,  two  in  each  jaw, 
directly  back  of  the  first  molar.  I  speak  of  the  careful 
mother  in  this  way  because  it  often  happens  that  these 
second  molars,  being  so  completely  out  of  sight  and  the 
time  of  their  arrival  being  so  often  unknown,  appear  in 
the  mouth  and  sometimes  decay  before  the  mother  knows 
they  have  come.  Then  they  have  a  way  of  forcing  atten- 
tion upon  themselves  most  disagreeably  by  beginning  to 
ache. 
»  By  this  time  the  child  has  passed  his  second  birthday 

''and  has  twenty  teeth.  Each  jaw  contains  two  central 
incisors,  two  lateral  incisors,  two  canines  and  four  molars. 
The  canine  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  are  called  the  eye  teeth, 
those  of  the  lower  jaw  are  called  the  stomach  teeth.  These 
twenty  teeth  are  known  as  the  temporary,  or  milk  teeth, 
and  in  time  come  out  to  make  room  for  the  permanent 
teeth.  The  permanent  teeth  will  be  spoken  of  in  a  later 
chapter. 

Importance  of  Care  of  the  Teeth.  The  importance  of 
taking  the  utmost  care  of  these  first  teeth  need  hardly  be 
emphasized.  In  the  first  place  nothing  is  more  distressing 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  29 

than  to  see  a  child  with  unclean  or  discolored  teeth.  But 
the  most  pathetic  part  of  the  neglect  of  the  teeth  is  that 
the  child  is  tormented  by  a  toothache  which  the  careful 
forethought  of  the  mother  might  have  spared  him.  It  is 
so  easy  to  forget  about  the  regular  visits  to  the  dentist 
which  one  fully  intended  to  make.  Also,  these  visits  are 
sometimes  postponed  because  the  child  rebels  and  dreads 
them. 

Nails.     Besides  the  teeth,  there  are  in  the  same  class 
the  finger  nails  and  toe  nails  which  require  attention.    The  • 
finger  nails  should  not  be  trimmed  very  closely  at  the 
corners,  and  if  the  toe  nails  are  cut  straight  across  there 
will  be  less  danger  of  their  ingrowing. 

5.    IMPORTANT  DATA 

In  the  early  part  of  the  chapter  there  were  given  the 
general  measurements  of  the  body  at  birth.  It  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  these  measurements  continue  to  be 
carefully  taken  during  the  weeks  and  months  which  fol- 
low. The  mother  can  provide  herself  with  nothing  which 
will  result  in  greater  ultimate  good  for  the  baby  than  an 
adequate  equipment  for  taking  these  measurements. 
Many  a  baby  has  elaborate  and  expensive  garments  in 
his  wardrobe,  which  could  very  profitably  be  exchanged 
for  a  good  measuring  outfit. 

Equipment  for  Taking  Measurements.  Let  a  tape 
measure  be  part  of  the  furnishing  of  baby's  basket,  and 
do  not  allow  it  to  stray  away.  A  grocer's  scales  in  one 
of  the  smaller  sizes,  but  provided  with  an  ample  basin, 
will  meet  the  requirements  of  weighing  the  little  one. 
There  are  all  kinds  of  devices  for  the  almost  impossible 


30  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

task  of  accurately  finding  the  baby's  length.  The  best,  I 
believe,  is  a  measure  similar  to  that  which  a  shoemaker 
uses  in  measuring  the  foot.1  It  is  something  like  a  rule 
with  an  upright  piece  that  will  slide  back  and  forth.  By 
placing  the  stationary  end-piece  above  the  baby's  head  as 
he  lies  on  the  bed — or,  better  still,  on  a  flat  solid  like  a 
table — and  moving  the  sliding  gauge  until  the  feet  touch 
it,  you  can  be  practically  sure  that  your  measurements  are 
accurate.  The  measure  should  be  about  forty-six  inches 
long  with  uprights  eight  inches  long.  A  carpenter  will 
make  such  a  measure  at  a  small  expense,  and,  after  having 
once  used  it,  you  will  find  it  indispensable.  Details  of 
measurements  and  weight  may  seem  unimportant  and 
hence  uninteresting.  But  I  trust  you  will  realize  why 
these  things  are  emphasized  when  I  give  you  an  incident, 
which  is  typical  of  many  other  similar  cases. 

Illustration  from  Experience.  There  was  born  into  the 
home  of  a  friend  of  mine,  a  beautiful  baby  boy.  His 
head  was  unusually  large.  His  parents  were  very  ambi- 
tious for  his  advancement  and  very  proud  of  the  mentality 
which  he  rapidly  developed.  They  were  absolutely  unin- 
formed as  to  the  possible  dangers  of  such  a  condition 
and  the  relation  which  the  size  of  the  head  should  prop- 
erly bear  to  the  other  parts  of  the  body.  No  measure- 
ments were  taken.  Everything  possible  was  done  to 
stimulate  the  baby's  mind.  He  was  taken  into  exciting 
environments  and  frequently  urged  to  "show  off."  At 
six  months  of  age  this  child  with  his  immense  forehead 
and  wise  look  had  the  appearance  of  many  children  sev- 
eral times  that  age.  As  he  approached  the  end  of  his 

1 J.  P.  C.  Griffith,  Care  of  the  Baby,  p.  58. 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  31 

first  year,  it  became  evident  that  all  was  not  right  with 
him.  His  mind  continued  to  develop,  but  his  body  became 
feeble  and  nervous.  The  advice  of  a  physician  was  sought 
and  all  possible  care  given,  but  the  little  fellow  hardly 
lived  to  pass  his  first  birthday. 

How  Child  Study  Helps.  Child  study  would  have 
shown  the  parents  that  an  infant  of  this  type  should  have 
been  kept  absolutely  quiet  and  free  from  mental  excite- 
ment; that  his  physical  development  should  have  been 
ministered  to  with  more  than  the  usual  care ;  and  that  the 
open  air  should  have  been  his  constant  abiding  place. 
With  such  precautions,  the  body  would  at  least  have  had 
a  chance  to  develop  sufficient  strength  to  sustain  what 
seemed  to  have  been  an  unusually  strong  mentality. 
Everyone  realizes  how  absolutely  fascinating  a  baby  is  in 
these  first  days  of  his  dawning  intelligence.  The  tempta- 
tion to  hover  over  him  and  make  him  "do  things"  is 
almost  irresistible.  In  many  cases  this  method  may  be 
the  best  thing  for  the  little  one.  I  trust  that  the  results 
of  investigation  upon  this  subject  which  have  been  col- 
lected here  will  help  you  to  know  what  is  best  in  the  case 
of  your  baby. 

The  Head.     The  weight  of  the  brain  probably  doubles  * 
during  the  first  year,  and  there  are  some  changes  in  the 
exterior  of  the  head  which  go  along  with  this  increase.1 
As  shown  by  the  table  below,  the  circumference  of  the 
head  becomes  proportionately  larger  during  the  first  six 
months  than  at  any  later  period.    The  anterior  fontanelle   ' 
increases  slightly  in  size  up  to  the  ninth  month.     After  / 

1 J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  118. 


32  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

that,  the  bones  begin  gradually  to  grow  over  it.    At  seven- 
'teen  or  eighteen  months  it  should  be  entirely  closed. 

Dr.  Griffith's  table  for  head  and  chest  will  be  found 
useful  here.1 

CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  HEAD  AND  CHEST 

Age                                                         Head  Chest 

Birth   1^/2  inches  13     inches 

6  months   17     inches  16^2  inches 

1  year   i8j4  inches  18     inches 

2  years   19     inches  18^2  inches 

„  Baby  Must  Grow.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid 
upon  the  importance  of  a  consistent  increase  in  weight  on 
the  part  of  the  body.  While  a  standstill  of  a  week  may 
not  prove  serious,  it  should  serve  to  put  the  mother  on 
her  guard.  But  do  not  let  a  second  week  go  by  without 
increase  in  weight.  Investigate  the  food  and  general 
processes.  If  nothing  can  be  done  there,  look  for  some 
organic  trouble.  Right  here  I  am  reminded  of  a  mother 
whom  child  study  would  have  helped.  This  mother  ex- 
claimed to  me  a  short  time  ago,  "I  wish  I  had  known 
enough  to  weigh  my  baby  every  week!  Had  I  realized 
that  he  was  not  gaining,  but  gradually  losing  in  weight, 
I  would  have  changed  his  food,  and  not  let  him  undergo 
a  process  of  slow  starvation,  as  he  has  been  doing  for 
some  time/'  This  mother  is  typical  of  many  other  mothers. 
On  the  other  hand,  one  cannot  fail  to  rejoice  over 
those  cases  where  the  careful  knowledge  of  the  mother,  in 
regard  to  the  matter  under  discussion  here,  has  served  to 
bring  the  baby  through  these  periods  of  serious  lack  of 
vitality. 

1 J.  P.  C.  Griffith,  Care  of  the  Baby,  p.  60. 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  33 

'Another  Illustration.  A  definite  illustration  of  this  is 
at  hand.  A  mother,  whose  six-months-old  baby  boy  to 
all  outward  appearances  was  well,  found  that  he  had 
failed  to  gain  in  weight  at  the  end  of  a  certain  week; 
then  the  second  and  third  and  even  fourth  week  passed 
without  gain.  By  this  time  the  baby  began  to  look  pale. 
The  mother,  from  the  first  sign  of  danger,  was  up  and 
doing.  Baby's  food  was  changed,  the  doctor  was  con- 
sulted, the  food  was  still  more  carefully  studied,  the  baby 
spent  days  and  almost  nights  in  the  open  air,  the  scales 
were  faithfully  resorted  to.  Time  was  slipping  into  the 
second  month,  bringing  anxiety  to  parents  and  friends, 
when  a  combination  of  foods  was  found  upon  which  the 
child  began  to  increase  in  weight.  The  boy  is  a  sturdy 
yearling  now  and  is  growing  normally,  but  a  knowledge 
of  conditions  makes  it  seem  reasonable  to  infer  that  his 
mother's  care  in  the  matter  of  measurements  had  much 
to  do  with  the  happy  outcome.  Dr.  Griffith's  table  of 
height  and  weight  is  given  here. 

DR.  GRIFFITH'S  TABLE  OF  HEIGHT  AND  WEIGHT 

Age  Height  Weight 

Birth   19     inches  7  Ibs.  8     oz. 

1  week    19  'inches  7 Ibs.   7^  oz. 

2  weeks    19     inches  7  Ibs.  10^2  oz. 

3  weeks    19     inches  8  Ibs.   2     oz. 

1  month    20^2  inches  8#J  pounds 

2  months    21     inches  io$4  pounds 

3  months    22     inches  I2J4  pounds 

4  months    23     inches  13^4  pounds 

5  months    23^  inches  15     pounds 

6  months    24     inches  i6j£  pounds 

7  months    24^  inches  17^  pounds 

8  months    25     inches  i8K  pounds 


34 


STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 


Age                                                            Height  Weight 

9  months    25^  inches  18^  pounds 

10  months    26     inches  19^  pounds 

11  months    26^  inches  20^  pounds 

1  year    27     inches  21^2  pounds 

2  years    31     inches  27     pounds 

Generalizations.  We  see  from  the  first  table  that  the 
baby  loses  weight  during  the  first  week,  but  more  than 
regains  during  the  second  week. 

The  table  shows  several  things.1  During  the  last  three 
weeks  of  the  first  month  and  the  entire  second  month  the 
gain  is  about  an  ounce  a  day;  in  the  third  and  fourth 
months  about  three- fourths  of  an  ounce  a  day.  In  the 
fifth  and  sixth  months  it  increases  two-thirds  of  an  ounce 
a  day,  and  from  the  seventh  to  the  twelfth  month  the 
gain  is  at  the  rate  of  about  a  pound  a  month,  or  a  trifle 
more  than  half  an  ounce  a  day,  except  in  the  ninth  and 
eleventh  months  when  the  increase  is  somewhat  less. 

In  length,  we  note  that  from  the  second  to  the  fourth 
month  the  increase  is  one  inch  a  month,  and  after  this 
up  to  one  year  it  is  half  an  inch  a  month.  After  the  first 
year  there  is  a  proportional  decrease  in  the  number  of 
pounds  as  well  as  in  the  number  of  inches  gained,  five 
pounds  being  gained  in  weight  and  four  inches  in  height 
in  the  second  year. 

6.   THE  BABY'S  MIND 

So  far  our  entire  attention  has  been  absorbed  by  the 
physical  part  of  the  baby's  life,  and  emphasis  has  been 
laid  upon  the  fact  that  at  birth  mental  traits  were  strictly 
lacking.  Mothers  often  resent  what  seems  to  them  dis- 

1 J.  P.  C  Griffith,  Care  of  the  Baby,  p.  53. 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  35 

paragement  of  their  baby's  equipment  along  mental  lines. 
But  the  joy  of  watching  the  mind  develop  from  nothing 
will  more  than  compensate  for  the  disappointment  of 
knowing  that  the  baby  is  born  without  active  mentality. 

Cortex  the  Seat  of  Consciousness.  The  part  of  the 
human  brain  where  it  is  known  that  all  acts  of  conscious- 
ness are  carried  on  is  the  outer  covering  called  the  cortex. 
This  outer  covering  is  made  up  of  many  overlapping 
folds,  thus  affording  wonderfully  large  areas  for  mental 
processes.  An  important  fact  is  that,  according  to  the  * 
testimony  of  scientific  investigations,  the  greater  part  of 
the  cortex  is  positively  inactive  during  the  first  three 
months  of  the  child's  life.1  It  is  said  that  nearly  every- 
thing which  the  child  does  at  this  time  is  done  better  when 
he  is  asleep.  In  fact  a  child  born  without  brains  has  very 
nearly  the  same  movements  at  first  as  the  normal  child. 
Therefore,  the  behavior  of  the  infant  during  these  months, 
while  often  having  the  appearance  of  being  rational  and 
while  extremely  interesting  for  many  reasons,  cannot  be 
looked  upon  as  being  rational  or  as  prompted  by  mental 
activity. 

Special  Senses  Imperfect?  But  whether  the  cortex  is 
active  or  inactive,  during  these  first  months  makes  but 
little  difference  to  the  baby's  mental  state  because  the 
senses  through  which  impressions  must  come  to  the  brain 
are  so  very  imperfect.  At  best,  the  world  presents  itself 
to  the  eyes  of  the  new-born  baby  as  a  general  blur  of 
light  and  shadow ;  to  the  ears  it  comes  as  dull  vibrations. 

It  is  not  many  days  before  the  baby  will  follow  an 

1  Francis  Warner,  The  Nervous  System,  p.  24. 

2  Irving  King,  Psychology  of  Child  Development,  p.  21. 


36  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

object  with  his  eyes  and  even  turn  his  head  to  do  so.  The 
head  also  turns  in  response  to  sounds  very  early.  But  for 
the  first  few  weeks  even  these  manifestations  cannot  be 
construed  as  mental  processes. 

Real  Development.  As  the  weeks  go  by  during  which 
real  mentality  is  becoming  established  the  baby  has  many 
ways  of  showing  it.  For  example,  the  first  real  smile, 
which  comes  almost  any  time  after  the  third  week,  can 
easily  be  distinguished  from  the  former  unconscious  con- 
tractions of  the  small  mouth;  there  is  the  dawning  look 
of  pleasure  at  sight  of  the  mother's  face  or  the  sound  of 
her  voice,  or  the  voice  of  the  father,  the  first  reaching 
out  of  the  arms  and  similar  demonstrations. 

The  instinct  to  tear  things,  which  may  come  as  early 
as  the  fifth  month,  indicates  a  stage -of  development,  and, 
tedious  as  it  is  to  pick  up  the  scraps,  the  mother  may  help 
the  advancement  of  the  child  by  supplying  newspapers 
or  similar  valueless  things.  Keep  books  away  from  the 
baby  until  he  is  old  enough  to  discriminate  between  what 
may  and  what  may  not  be  torn.  Close  upon  the  develop- 
ing consciousness  of  the  little  one  comes  the  responsibility 
of  the  parents  for  his  behavior.  This  chapter  will  close 
with  a  few  words  in  regard  to  discipline,  for  even  very 
little  folks  are  likely  to  require  it. 

Discipline.  When  the  child,  even  the  very  young  one, 
does  those  things  which  are  disturbing  to  the  peace  and 
order  of  the  home  he  should  be  corrected.  The  method 
to  be  used  must  be  determined  by  the  individual  parent. 
Bodily  punishment  is  more  effective  than  moral  suasion 
at  this  period,  since  the  undeveloped  mental  life  of  the 
child  makes  it  almost  necessary  to  appeal  to  him  on  the 


WHERE  CHILD  STUDY  BEGINS  37 

physical  side.  A  slapping  of  the  hands  has  the  advan- 
tage of  being  prompt  and  definite,  two  very  necessary 
attributes  of  successful  punishment,  especially  for  young 
children.  Tying  the  little  hands  which  stray  from  the 
way  of  obedience  is  often  effective  in  securing  it.  There 
are  many  children  who  can  be  more  immediately  reached 
by  being  deprived  of  something  of  which  they  are  very 
fond.  This  may  be  a  cherished  toy,  an  article  of  clothing, 
a  favorite  pleasure,  or  even  temporarily  the  society  of 
the  mother. 

It  is  easier  to  establish  relations  of  obedience  now  than 
it  will  be  later.  The  individuality  of  each  child  should 
be  noted,  and  a  study  should  be  made  of  what  is  the  most 
effective  way  of  discipline.  But  some  method  must  be 
adopted. 

Self -Control.  The  rules  of  society  demand  self-con- 
trol, and  this  self-control  should  be  taught  as  early  as 
possible.  It  has  been  claimed  that  self-control  in  the 
parents  will  beget  self-control  in  the  child.  I  have  not 
observed  it  to  work  that  way.  Self-control  in  the  parent 
is  no  doubt  one  of  the  conditions  for  a  self -controlled 
child,  but  it  is  not  the  only  condition.  Where  the  child 
is  wisely  but  surely  taught  obedience  to  home  discipline 
he  is  under  better  self-control  and  much  more  amenable 
to  the  demands  of  school  and  society  than  when  the  law 
of  imitation  is  entirely  relied  upon.  Moral  suasion  with 
children  under  two  years  of  age  is  more  than  likely  to 
render  parenthood  a  farce  and  society  pandemonium.  Im- 
pose obedience  in  whatever  way  you  think  best  upon  your 
little  folks,  and  they,  as  well  as  society,  will  rise  up  and 
call  you  blessed, 


38  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

QUESTIONS  FOR  USE  IN  CLUB  STUDY 

1.  Tell  why  child  study  is  important. 

2.  What  is  the  baby's  first  need? 

3.  Name  the  first  points  to  be  noted,  and  tell  which  you  think  is 

the  most  important. 

4.  Discuss  each  topic  referred  to  in  question  three. 

5.  How  do  these  measurements  compare  with  those  of  your  baby? 

6.  Describe  the  condition  of  the  special  senses  at  birth. 

7.  Explain  the  proper  conditions  for  the  baby's  first  bath  and  first 

costume. 

8.  Discuss  the  presence  of  starch  in  baby's  food. 

9.  Give  Dr.  Griffith's  formula  for  milk  mixture. 

10.  Explain  proper  care  of  the  milk. 

11.  Discuss  times  of  feeding. 

12.  Suggest  diet  for  baby  during  his  second  year. 

13.  Make  suggestions  about  keeping  the  baby  warm. 

14.  Give  your  experience  with  reference  to  the  "everyday  problems." 

15.  Describe  the  different  groups  of  teeth. 

16.  Describe  a  good  equipment  for  measuring  the  baby;  tell  why 

the  mothers  should  have  it. 

17.  Describe  the  cortex  and  its  condition  in  the  new  baby. 

18.  When  do  you  think  discipline  should  begin?    Why? 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   CHILD   FROM   TWO    TO    SEVEN    YEARS 
i.   INTRODUCTORY 

Physical  Life  Our  Basis.  Physical  and  mental  growth 
are  closely  allied.  Modern  physiology  and  psychology 
are  laying  much  emphasis  upon  the  fact  of  the  oneness 
of  the  human  organism.  Just  what  the  nature  of  this 
mysterious  intimacy  which  links  our  bodies  and  our  minds 
is,  we  do  not  know,  but  the  fact  of  the  unity  is  beyond 
question.  It  was  Montaigne  who  said  very  wisely,  "It 
is  not  the  mind,  it  is  not  the  body,  we  are  training;  it  is 
the  man,  and  we  must  not  divide  him  into  parts;  one 
should  not  be  fashioned  without  the  other."  It  will,  how- 
ever, be  a  matter  of  convenience  for  us  to  continue  to 
study  the  next  five  years  along  the  same  lines  which  have 
been  followed,  almost  from  necessity  during  the  first  two 
years,  considering  the  external  or  physical  development 
of  the  organism  first,  and  the  mental  development  as 
largely  conditioned  by  the  physical  development. 

Every  mother  desires  that  her  child  shall  be  normal  and 
healthy  in  the  best  and  broadest  sense.  But,  judging 
from  the  testimony  of  those  who  have  investigated  widely, 
it  is  far  from  safe  to  assume  that  all  children  are  normal 
or  in  normal  health.  Hence  we  are  justified  in  making 
it  our  serious  purpose  to  consider  how  we  may  best  judge 
as  to  the  physical  condition  of  our  children,  and  how  we 
may  most  surely  make  and  keep  them  well. 

39 


40  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

In  watching  for  possible  defects,  the  mother  must  not 
allow  herself  to  fall  into  a  state  of  nervous  apprehen- 
sion in  which  she  sees  and  dreads  imaginary  diseases ;  but 
she  should  intelligently  apply  the  knowledge  which  she, 
in  common  with  all  good  mothers,  ought  to  possess.  Thus 
she  will  be  able  thoroughly  to  enjoy  the  health  of  her 
child  as  well  as  to  forestall  and  correct  any  evidences 
of  the  opposite  condition.  We  have  spoken  of  the  normal 
child.  It  may  be  well  to  inquire  just  what  that  means. 

A  Normal  Child.  A  normal  child  may  be  defined  as 
one  that  does  not  present  any  visible  defects  in  develop- 
ment, nutrition,  or  physical  condition;  one  with  no  ab- 
normal nerve  signs,  or  not  dull  or  backward  mentally. 
The  normal  child  is  not  the  perfect  child,  for  we  do  not 
expect  to  find  human  perfection  among  our  children.  Yet 
it  may  be  interesting  to  mothers  to  know  what  a  perfect 
child  would  look  like  and  be  like,  if  he  existed.  He  has 
been  thus  defined  by  Warner : 

A  Perfect  Child.  "The  body  of  the  perfect  child  must 
be  well  proportioned,  the  head  of  good  size  and  well- 
shaped,  with  each  feature  well  made.  The  nutrition  of 
the  body  must  be  normal.  Sight  and  hearing  should  be 
perfect.  The  signs  of  brain  action  must  be  good,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  movements.  Expression  lively,  speech  clear 
and  distinct.  He  must  show  intelligent  appreciation, 
judgment  and  a  proper  use  of  language.  He  must  have 
the  faculty  of  expressing  himself,  of  thinking  and  of 
remembering.  His  ancestry  and  inheritance  must  be  of 
the  best.  His  habits  in  social  life,  and  his  tastes  and 
enjoyments  must  be  of  a  high  order."1 

1  Francis  Warner,  A  Study  of  Children,  p.  156. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  41 

2.   NUTRITION 

One  of  the  first  problems  of  the  mother,  from  the 
physical  standpoint,  is  the  problem  of  nutrition.  Atwater 
has  truly  observed,  "The  health  and  strength  of  all  are 
intimately  dependent  upon  their  diet.  Yet  most  people 
understand  very  little  about  what  their  food  contains  and 
whether  or  not  it  is  rightly  fitted  to  the  demands  of  their 
bodies." 

While  every  mother,  in  arranging  the  diet  of  her  family, 
is  in  a  measure  limited  to  the  foods  which  she  finds  in 
her  local  market,  it  is  self-evident  that  a  knowledge  of 
the  composition  of  the  various  foods  and  of  the  effect 
which  their  component  elements  have  upon  the  body  will 
give  her  a  much  wider  range  than  she  would  otherwise 
have  in  the  work  of  planning  this  diet. 

How  Food  Nourishes.  '  We  learn  in  our  study  of  phys- 
iology that  the  various  organs  of  the  body  are  made 
up  of  tiny  cells,  joined  compactly  together  by  means  of 
a  delicate  tissue  into  which  penetrates  the  blood  in  a 
most  wonderful  fashion  of  its  own.  These  cells  may 
be  strong  and  well-nourished  or  they  may  be  weak  and 
ill- fed.  Growth  can  only  be  normal,  and  energy  and 
vitality  great  when  the  cells  are  strong  and  perfect.  There 
is  not  a  great  difference  between  the  number  of  these  cells 
in  the  child  and  in  the  adult.  Development  comes  from 
their  enlargement.1 

Nourishment  is  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  body  by 
means  of  the  blood.  The  nourishment  contained  in  the 
blood  is  absorbed  by  the  cells  as  it  is  needed,  and  they 
are  thus  built  up.  The  source  whence  the  blood  secures 

1  Francis  Warner,  A  Study  of  Children,  p.  156, 


42  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

this  nourishment  for  the  enrichment  of  the  tissues  through 
which  it  flows  is  the  food  which  is  taken  into  the  stomach. 
It  will  be  worth  while  to  recall  briefly  the  manner  in 
which  food  is  converted  into  nourishment  and  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  body.  After  having  been  duly 
treated  in  the  mouth,  the  food  passes  into  the  stomach. 
Here  it  is  acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice  and  subjected 
to  a  series  of  wavelike  motions  which  at  once  knead  it 
and  carry  it  onward  through  the  pylorus  into  the  small 
intestine.  When  it  passes  into  the  small  intestine  it  is 
known  as  chyme  and  consists  of  minute  solid  masses 
suspended  in  a  liquid,  the  consistency  of  the  whole  being 
that  of  moderately  thick  pea  soup.1  In  the  small  intestine 
this  fluid  is  acted  upon  by  still  other  juices  and  the  nour- 
ishment extracted  from  it  through  the  myriads  of  thread- 
like villi  which  form  the  lining  of  this  important  organ. 
The  villi  send  it  on  through  other  tubes  into  the  blood 
and  it  is  distributed  throughout  the  whole  organism.  If 
the  blood  does  not  secure  the  nourishment  which  is  needed 
it  becomes  impoverished  and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  can- 
not build  up  the  cells  which  are  constantly  breaking  down 
and  which  depend  upon  the  blood  for  their  renewal.  This 
means  either  that  growth  must  stop  altogether  or  at  the 
best  be  slow  and  uncertain.  In  other  words,  every  act 
of  growth  is  provisional;  when  nutritive  material  fails  to 
be  supplied  growth  must  cease.  2 Professor  Chittenden, 
in  discussing  this  fact,  says,  "Development,  growth,  and 
vital  activity  all  depend  upon  the  availability  of  food  in 
proper  amounts  and  of  the  proper  quality. " 

1  Hough  and  Sedgwick.  The  Human  Mechanism,  p.  1 12. 

2  R.  H.  Chittenden,  Nutrition  of  Man,  Chapter  I. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  43 

Cause  for  Watchfulness.  We  are  sometimes  deceived 
because  the  child  does  not  show  at  once  the  effects  of  a 
lack  of  nourishment.  What  the  blood  does  not  find  fur- 
nished it  in  the  normal  and  proper  way,  it  will  try  to 
secure  in  other  ways.  The  stronger  organs  may  thus 
become  a  drain  upon  the  weaker  ones,  and  serious  harm 
be  done  which  will  show  itself  in  adult  life.  The  mother 
of  the  growing  child  must  be  very  sure  that  he  has  nour- 
ishing food,  even  though  she  detect  no  signs  of  ill-nour- 
ishment. It  is  simply  the  fact  that  the  child's  body 
requires  a  daily  supply  of  material  adapted  to  its  nature, 
if  it  is  to  live,  grow,  and  perform  work.  1  Professor 
Tyler  says,  in  this  connection,  that  for  the  young  child 
the  table  and  the  meal  are  more  important  than  the  school 
and  the  book.  Since  the  digestive  system  is  the  founda- 
tion of  all  life  and  activity,  the  growing  child  must  have 
material  for  ( i )  growth,  both  for  the  organic  tissue  and 
the  inorganic  bones,  (2)  energy,  (3)  heat.  The  bulk 
of  the  food  will  be  organic  matter,  but  the  inorganic  ele- 
ments are  not  to  be  overlooked.  Professor  Chittenden 
says:  "The  inorganic  substances  are  an  integral  part  of 
the  essential  tissues  and  organs  of  the  body,  being  com- 
bined with  the  organic  constituents  of  the  living  cells. 
Perhaps  these  inorganic  substances  in  certain  forms  are 
what  put  life  and  fundamental  power  into  certain  very 
important  forms  of  organic  matter." 

Classes  of  Foods.  Foods  are  divided  into  three  classes : 
proteids,  carbohydrates,  and  fats.  This  division  is  not 
based  strictly  upon  the  dominant  element  which  each  class 
contains,  but  rather  upon  the  effect  which  the  food  has 

1 J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  87. 


44  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

upon  the  body.  Each  class  is  very  important  in  its  own 
peculiar  way. 

Proteids.  The  proteids,  or  albuminous  foods,  are  usu- 
ally considered  first,  because  they  are  the  most  funda- 
mental. It  is  in  the  proteids,  and  only  in  them,  that 
nitrogen  is  found.  Although  nitrogen  is  not  the  pre- 
dominating element  in  the  proteids,  since  it  forms  only 
sixteen  per  cent  of  them,  yet  so  important  a  factor  is  it 
that  the  proteids  are  sometimes  known  as  the  nitrogenous 
foods.  Nitrogen  is  such  a  quiet  sort  of  element  that  we 
would  never  realize  without  critical  study  how  dependent 
we  are  upon  it  in  a  physical  way.  Nitrogen  may  be  called 
"the  power  behind  the  throne,"  because,  while  so  much 
depends  upon  it,  it  always  seems  to  keep  in  the  back- 
ground and  practically  out  of  sight.  Nitrogen,  in  its 
elemental  form,  is  a  gas,  tasteless,  odorless,  and  colorless. 
It  forms  four-fifths  of  the  air  which  we  breathe.  As  it 
is  a  component  part  of  all  animal  substances,  we  easily 
infer  that  it  is  found  to  a  large  extent  in  the  tissue  of  the 
living  body,  and  such  is  the  case.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
we  are  ourselves  fundamentally  proteids. 

To  quote  again  from  Professor  Chittenden:  "The 
organic  substance  of  all  organs  and  tissues  is  made  up 
principally  of  proteid  matter.  Proteids  constitute  the 
class  of  essential  food  stuffs,  without  which  life  is  im- 
possible. For  tissue  building,  and  for  the  renewal  of 
tissues  and  organs,  proteids  are  an  absolute  requirement. 
The  vital  part  of  all  tissue  is  proteid,  and  only  proteid 
food  can  serve  for  its  growth  or  renewal.  Hence,  no 
matter  how  generous  the  supply  of  carbohydrates  and 
fats,  without  some  mixture  of  proteid  foods,  the  body 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  45 

will  weaken  and  undergo  nitrogen  starvation.  Every 
living  cell,  whether  of  heart,  muscle,  brain  or  nerve,  re- 
quires its  due  allowance  of  proteid  material  to  maintain 
its  physiological  rhythm.  No  other  food  stuff  stands  in 
such  intimate  relationship  to  the  vital  processes."1 

But  there  must  be  a  grouping  of  the  nitrogen,  or  pro- 
teid element,  with  other  elements,  and  this  grouping  must 
be  of  a  certain  definite  nature  in  order  that  the  waste 
proteid  tissues  may  be  made  good.  The  largest  element 
in  proteid  is  carbon.  This  amounts  to  fifty-two  per  cent. 
Next  comes  oxygen,  of  which  there  is  twenty-three  per 
cent.  Besides  these,  and  the  sixteen  per  cent  of  nitrogen 
already  referred  to,  there  is  seven  per  cent  of  hydrogen, 
with  a  little  sulphur  and,  in  some  forms,  a  small  amount 
of  phosphorus. 

Carbohydrates.  Food  stuffs  of  the  second  class  are 
the  carbohydrates,  or  the  starches  and  sugars.  These 
foods  contain  no  nitrogen  but  are  made  up  of  oxygen 
(49.4  per  cent),  carbon  (44.4  per  cent),  and  hydrogen 
(6.2  per  cent).  They  are  called  the  fuel  food  stuffs. 
The  word  fuel,  in  connection  with  the  carbohydrates,  is 
not  used  in  its  generally  accepted  sense;  i.  e.,  as  a  heat 
producer.  It  is  used  more  as  it  would  be  in  connection 
with  the  running  of  a  steam  engine.  In  other  words, 
the  carbohydrates  are  used  to  supply  energy.  They  can- 
not build  tissue.  When  they  seem  to  be  doing  so,  it  is 
because  they  are  being  taken  into  the  body  in  excess  of 
need,  and  are  transformed  into  fat,  which  is  only  tem- 
porary. The  reason  why  carbohydrates  serve  to  produce 
energy  is  that  they  oxidize  easily  and  quickly. 

1  Prof.  R.  H.  Chittenden,  The  Nutrition  of  Man,  pp.  3  and  4. 


46  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

Fats.  The  third  class  of  foods  consists  of  the  fats. 
They  are  made  up  of  three- fourths  carbon  and  a  little 
more  than  eleven  per  cent  each  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 
It  is  evident  that  the  fats,  with  their  large  proportion 
of  carbon,  are  preeminently  the  heat-makers.  The  carbo- 
hydrates produce  some  heat,  as  does  anything  which  will 
oxidize  or  partly  oxidize  in  the  body,  but  the  fats,  be- 
cause they  contain  a  larger  percentage  of  carbon,  yield 
more  heat  per  pound  than  any  other  food. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  all  three  classes  of 
organic  foods  contain  their  quota  of  the  inorganic  salts 
which  are  needed  for  the  bones  and  teeth,  and  possibly 
for  other  purposes.  Foods  which  have  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  inorganic  matter  will  be  mentioned  later. 

Grouping  of  Food  Stuffs.  While  a  knowledge  of  the 
composition  of  our  food  stuffs  is  important  and  interest- 
ing, it  will  avail  but  little  for  the  mother,  in  a  practical 
way,  unless  she  can  learn  how  these  three  classes  of  foods 
are  grouped  in  the  ordinary  articles  of  diet.  Hence  an 
effort  will  be  made  here  to  group  the  different  kinds  of 
food  stuffs  according  as  they  abound  in  one  or  the  other 
of  the  different  food  principles.  The  mother  must  always 
bear  in  mind  that  the  growing  child  needs  all  three  of 
the  so-called  typical  groups  of  food.  But  his  predomi- 
nating needs  change  as  he  grows  and  develops,  and  cer- 
tain elements  are  needed  in  relatively  larger  proportions 
at  one  time  than  at  another.  Moreover,  any  child  may 
show  abnormal  physical  signs  which  indicate  unusual 
needs  in  the  way  of  food. 

In  many  of  our  natural  products,  all  three  of  the  food 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  47 

principles  appear.  But  1  Professor  Chittenden  points  out 
that  by  physiological  analysis  there  is  shown  to  be  a 
difference  in  the  availability  of  these  different  elements. 
I  have  tried  to  group  the  foods  not  only  with  reference 
to  their  actual  content,  but  also  with  reference  to  the 
availability  of  nutritive  elements.  We  will  begin  with  a 
consideration  of  the  first  class  of  foods;  namely,  the 
proteids. 

Proteid  Foods.  All  kinds  of  lean  meats  are  concen- 
trated proteid  food.  Round  steak,  canned  dried  beef, 
and  roast  turkey  stand  at  the  head  of  the  list  as  given  in 
the  revised  data  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.2  Any  kind  of  fish  is  essentially  proteid. 
Bluefish  and  codfish  head  the  list.  Both  meat  and  fish 
are  peculiar  in  that  they  contain  no  carbohydrates.  Other 
strongly  proteid  foods  are  eggs  and  cheese.  The  former 
contains  no  carbohydrates  and  the  latter  very  little.  This 
short  list  by  no  means  embraces  the  only  foods  which 
contain  much  proteid  matter.  They  are,  however,  the  typ- 
ical proteid  foods.  Some  of  the  vegetables  are  very  rich  in 
proteids,  and  form  a  fine  diet  for  children,  because  they 
contain  a  better  balance  of  all  the  elements  than  do  these 
almost  purely  proteid  foods. 

Carbohydrate  Foods.  In  the  second,  or  carbohydrate, 
class,  are  the  vegetables.  As  has  just  been  said,  many 
of  these  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  proteid 
element,  but  as  this  proteid  is  not  so  available  as  in  foods 
of  the  animal  type  it  is  not  taken  so  largely  into  consid- 
eration. At  the  head  of  the  list  of  carbohydrates  stands 

1  R.  H.  Chittenden,  The  Nutrition  of  Man,  Chapter  I. 

2  Bulletin  28,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


48  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

shredded  wheat.  Then  come  macaroni,  cornmeal,  prunes, 
soda  crackers,  whole  wheat,  oatmeal,  dried  beans  and 
peas,  white  bread,  brown  bread,  tapioca,  boiled  rice,  pea- 
nuts, bananas,  potatoes,  green  corn,  almonds,  apples, 
oranges,  cranberries,  peaches,  and  strawberries.  The  list 
given  here  is  in  the  order  of  the  relative  amount  of  the 
carbohydrates  which  the  different  articles  contain,  rang- 
ing 77.9  per  cent  in  shredded  wheat  to  7.4  per  cent  in 
strawberries.  Boiled  rice  and  peanuts,  which  stand  near 
the  middle  of  list,  each  contain  the  same  amount,  namely, 
24  per  cent.  A  consideration  of  the  entire  list  of  foods 
shows  that  the  article  having  the  largest  amount  of  carbo- 
hydrates is  raw  rice.  This  contains  79  per  cent.  But, 
as  raw  rice  could  hardly  be  considered  a  suitable  diet  for 
our  children,  even  though  it  be  so  rich  in  carbohydrates, 
it  does  not  seem  a  suitable  article  with  which  to  head 
the  list.  Note  that  when  the  rice  is  cooked  the  carbo- 
hydrates decrease  to  24  per  cent.  This  does  not  mean, 
however,  that  cooking  always  decreases  the  carbohydrates 
which  an  article  contains.  The  statistics  show  that  raw 
potatoes  do  not  contain  so  large  a  proportion  of  carbo- 
hydrates as  do  boiled  potatoes.  The  vegetables  which 
were  referred  to  a  moment  ago  as  containing,  with  the 
carbohydrates,  the  greatest  amount  of  available  proteid 
are  beans,  peas,  oats,  and  wheat. 

Fat  Foods.  Let  us  now  see  what  part  of  our  ordi- 
nary table  diet  contains  the  largest  portion  of  the  third 
kind  of  foods,  the  fats.  We  find  butter  in  the  lead,  with 
eighty-five  per  cent  of  fat.  Next  come  the  common 
nuts  in  the  following  order :  Brazil  nuts,  soft  shell  wal- 
nuts, almonds,  and  peanuts.  It  should  be  noted  that  all 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  49 

of  these  nuts  contain,  together  with  the  great  amount  of 
fat,  a  good  proportion  of  proteid,  while  peanuts,  almonds, 
and  walnuts  have  a  noticeable  proportion  of  carbohy- 
drates. Brazil  nuts  have  very  little  of  the  carbohydrates. 
It  must  be  evident  from  this  analysis  of  nuts  that  they 
are  exceedingly  valuable  food  stuff.  In  fact,  they  have 
not  until  quite  recently  been  estimated  at  their  full  food 
value.  After  nuts,  cheese  takes  its  place  as  an  important 
fatty  food.  Among  meats  which  are  rich  in  fat,  smoked 
ham  has  more  than  fifty  per  cent  of  this  substance;  corned 
beef  and  lamb  more  than  twenty-five  per  cent;  mutton, 
turkey,  porterhouse  and  tenderloin  steaks,  roast  beef  and 
mackerel  more  than  twenty  per  cent;  and  sweetbreads, 
chicken,  salmon,  and  eggs  more  than  ten  per  cent.  Most 
of  the  other  common  articles  of  food  contain  a  small 
amount  of  fat,  the  smallest  being  found  in  vegetables. 
The  only  article  in  the  revised  list  from  the  United  States 
bulletin  which  contains  absolutely  no  fat  is  dried  prunes; 
while  potatoes,  cooked  beets,  peaches,  and  boiled  rice 
contain  but  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent. 

Milk.  Milk  is  mostly  water.  Good,  standard  milk  is 
eighty-seven  per  cent  water,  and  poor  milk — no  one  can 
tell  about  that.  Of  the  thirteen  per  cent  of  solid  matter 
found  in  standard  milk,  five  per  cent  consists  of  carbo- 
hydrates, four  per  cent  fat,  three  and  three-tenths  per 
cent  proteids,  and  seven-tenths  of  one  per  cent  mineral 
matter. 

Mineral  Matter  in  Foods.  It  still  remains  to  mention 
the  foods  which  are  richest  in  mineral  matter.  Codfish 
contains  nearly  twenty-five  per  cent  and  mackerel  thir- 
teen and  two-tenths  per  cent  mineral  matter.  After  these 


So  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

come  sardines,  corned  beef,  dried  beans,  cheese,  smoked 
ham,  butter,  apples  and  nuts,  with  from  five  to  three 
per  cent.  Next  come  salmon,  shredded  wheat,  brown 
bread,  soda  crackers,  peas,  prunes,  peanuts,  and  almonds 
with  from  three  to  two  per  cent  of  mineral  matter. 

Selection  of  Foods.  After  obtaining  an  idea  of  the 
elements  contained  in  our  foods,  and  the  purposes  which 
they  serve  in  the  human  body,  the  most  important  thing 
for  the  mother  is  to  learn  how  these  different  foods  may 
be  made  to  minister  to  the  growth  and  development  of 
her  child.  When  should  proteid  foods  be  emphasized? 
When  should  most  attention  be  given  to  the  carbohy- 
drates ?  When  are  the  fats  of  most  importance  ?  Should 
special  attention  be  given  to  the  foods  containing  mineral 
matter?  The  laying  down  of  definite  rules  is  difficult, 
and  in  a  sense  impossible,  but  there  are  certain  general 
principles  which  may  be  wisely  considered.  As  has  been 
said  before,  all  children  require  a  daily  portion  of  the 
three  organic  food  principles  as  well  as  some  of  the  in- 
organic salts.  Much  can  be  done  for  the  nutrition  of  the 
child  by  seeing  that  his  diet  includes  a  variety  of  food 
and  that  this  variety  contains  some  of  all  the  essential 
elements.  It  is  not  well  to  offer  many  kinds  of  food  at 
the  same  meal,  but  it  is  important  to  see  that  during  each 
day  some  portion  of  each  element  enters  into  the  food 
which  is  consumed. 

As  to  the  amount  of  food  to  be  eaten  at  any  one  time, 
there  is  probably  little  danger  that  it  will  be  too  great  if 
anything  like  a  proper  proportion  is  maintained.  Tyler 
says  that  the  young  child  may  properly  eat  twice  as  much 
food  per  pound  of  weight  as  the  adult,  because  growth 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS         51 

consumes  more  nutriment  than  exercise.  Proteids  will 
supply  the  material  for  the  new  tissue,  and  for  building 
up  the  loss  from  wear  and  tear;  the  carbohydrates  will 
supply  the  energy  for  activity  and  work,  with  some  heat ; 
and  the  fats  will  yield  a  large  supply  of  heat.  Attention 
is  called  by  Mendal  in  his  Childhood  and  Growth,  to  the 
fact  that  the  increase  in  weight  of  the  growing  child 
bears  a  very  small  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  food 
which  he  takes  into  the  body.  The  portion  of  the  food 
which  actually  goes  to  build  up  the  tissue  is  only  about 
one  one-hundredth  of  the  intake.  The  greater  part  is 
excreted  as  waste  material.  The  tremendous  food  re- 
quirements of  children  are  caused  by  the  heightened 
chemical  activities  of  the  growing  organism. 

Adaptation  of  Foods.  Again,  the  uses  of  foods  differ 
at  different  ages.  In  the  earliest  stages  of  infancy  the 
growth  is  comparatively  slow,  and  much  material  is  needed 
for  warmth.  We  find  that  the  mother's  milk,  while  con- 
taining all  the  elements,  has  the  largest  proportion  of  car- 
bohydrates and  fats.  In  the  rapidly  growing  periods  of 
childhood  there  is  a  definite  call  for  proteid  food,  but  the 
muscular  activity  also  makes  a  large  demand  for  the  car- 
bohydrates. The  craving  for  sugar,  which  is  so  common 
among  children,  is  entirely  normal.  Sugar  yields  readily 
to  combustion  and  supplies  abundant  energy.  Much  stress 
is  now  being  laid  upon  the  value  to  the  growing  body  of 
the  natural  sugars  and  starches.  The  reason  why  the 
excessive  use  of  candy  is  to  be  discouraged  is  that  in  candy 
the  sugar  is  too  concentrated.  The  sweet  fruits  are 
especially  commended  for  young  children.  Professor 
Chittenden  names  the  fruits  as  desirable  in  about  the  fol- 


52  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

lowing  order :  Oranges,  grapes,  prunes,  dates,  plums,  and 
bananas.  In  the  second  class  are  placed  peaches,  apricots, 
pears,  apples,  figs,  strawberries,  raspberries,  and  blue- 
berries. 

"In  all  of  these  fruits,  it  is  the  sugar  which  gives  them 
their  value,  while  the  mild  acid  and  the  water  they  contain 
help  in  other  ways  to  maintain  health.  Apples  are  above 
reproach  if  properly  masticated/'1  This  same  writer 
thinks  that  the  acid  fermentation  from  which  some  chil- 
dren suffer  when  using  foods  abounding  in  sugar  and 
starch  may  be  avoided  by  a  more  moderate  use  of  proteid 
foods. 

So  much  for  food  stuffs  for  the  healthy  child.  But  if 
the  child,  instead  of  being  active  is  listless  and  tired,  it 
will  be  well  to  arrange  a  bill  o.f  fare  for  him  which  shall 
include  stewed  prunes,  shredded  wheat  and  macaroni. 
Have,  also,  plenty  of  baked  beans,  whole- wheat  bread,  and 
butter.  Dried  peas  contain  more  of  all  the  substantial  ele- 
ments than  canned  peas,  for  they  are  more  condensed. 
Tapioca  is  good  and  may  be  made  most  attractive.  Soda 
crackers  have  usually  been  considered  poor  diet,  but  they 
contain  seventy-three  per  cent  of  carbohydrates,  and  hence 
are  valuable  as  producers  of  energy. 

A  child  who  is  inclined  to  be  too  warm-blooded  will  do 
well  to  avoid  the  fats,  that  is  butter,  cheese,  and  nuts.  A 
better  diet  will  be  lean  meats,  codfish  and  mackerel,  with 
rice,  macaroni,  whole  wheat  bread,  potatoes  and  apples. 

For  the  thin,  nervous  child,  with  cold  hands  and  feet, 
a  diet  which  includes  some  fat  meat  is  desirable.  If  this 
is  not  palatable,  as  is  often  the  case,  encourage  the  use  of 

1  R.  H.  Chittenden,  The  Nutrition  of  Man,  p.  291. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  53 

cheese,  nuts,  and  plenty  of  butter  on  the  bread.  Porter- 
house and  tenderloin  steaks,  turkey,  chicken,  mutton, 
sweetbreads,  salmon,  and  eggs,  will  surely  offer  a  variety 
from  which  to  choose. 

All  children  should  drink  much  water.  The  moisture 
which  is  thus  taken  into  the  body  aids  the  diffusion  of 
nutriment  and  the  removal  of  waste.  Most  children  have 
an  almost  unlimited  craving  for  water,  which  the  parent 
may  safely  allow  to  be  satisfied.  If  the  child  is  not  natur- 
ally thirsty,  it  will  be  wise  to  find  some  way  of  stimulat- 
ing his  thirst,  for  reasons  which  have  just  been  mentioned. 

A  Danger.  The  need  of  the  system  for  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  mineral  matter  was  mentioned  a  moment  ago,  and 
there  are  doubtless  cases  where  it  is  best  to  encourage  the 
eating  of  such  things  as  mackerel,  codfish,  and  dried  beef, 
which  are  quite  rich  in  mineral  matter.  But  the  mother 
should  notice  that  these  salty  things  affect  the  kidneys, 
for  the  salt  is  not  entirely  changed  in  the  body,  and  too 
much  of  it  will  burden  sensitive  kidneys.  This  is  also 
true  of  an  excess  of  proteids  for,  while  they  are  the  tissue 
builders  and  hence  absolutely  necessary  for  growth,  an 
immoderate  use  of  them  should  be  avoided.  The  danger 
to  the  child  from  too  large  a  proportion  of  proteids  is 
shown  not  only  in  its  effect  upon  the  kidneys,  but  also 
upon  the  liver.  That  nutritious  portion  of  the  proteids 
which  is  taken  from  the  small  intestine  through  the  villi 
is  never  completely  assimilated  as  are  the  soluble  por- 
tions of  the  carbohydrates  and  fats.  Held  in  suspension 
with  the  soluble  portion  is  what  has  been  called,  "a  solid 
ash  which  must  be  raked  down  by  the  liver  and  thrown 
out  by  the  kidneys/'  If  these  most  useful  organs  become 


54  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

impaired  from  overwork  there  will  be  sure  to  ensue  the 
dread  evils  of  indigestion,  liver  troubles,  bilious  attacks, 
and  rheumatism.  The  harm  which  comes  from  overload- 
ing the  kidneys  is  not  felt  until  it  is  too  late  to  fully  avoid 
the  consequences.  Professor  Chittenden  has  shown  that 
the  excess  of  the  child's  food,  in  proportion  to  body 
weight,  may  more  safely  be  in  carbohydrates  and  fats. 
The  only  exception  to  this  rule  would  be  in  the  case  of  the 
hot,  flabby  child,  when  the  fats  should  be  used  sparingly 
or  omitted  entirely. 

How  to  Eat.  We  have  discussed  what  to  eat,  but  the 
subject  of  eating  should  not  be  passed  over  without  a  few 
words  upon  how  to  eat.  The  process  by  which  the  food  is 
transformed  into  tissue  is,  as  has  been  already  said,  a 
chemical  process,  and  has  been  compared  to  the  burning 
of  fuel  in  an  engine.  The  first  change  comes  about 
through  the  action  of  the  saliva.  Food  should  be  eaten 
slowly  and  thoroughly  masticated  in  order  to  obtain  the 
full  value  of  this  process.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the 
case  of  the  starchy  foods.  If  the  saliva  has  a  chance  to 
do  its  work  the  burden  upon  the  other  organs  will  be  less. 
Remember  that  all  carbohydrates  contain  starch.  If  you 
have  found  that  your  child  cannot  digest  starchy  food,  it 
is  probable  that  he  has  acquired  the  habit  of  eating  too 
rapidly,  and  of  not  chewing  his  food  thoroughly.  The 
food  should  be  kept  in  the  mouth  as  long  as  possible  in 
order  that  it  may  mingle  with  the  saliva,  and  because  the 
finer  the  mastication  the  more  easily  it  will  be  acted  upon 
by  the  other  digestive  juices.  Thorough  mastication, 
especially  in  the  case  of  starchy  foods,  has  been  referred 
to  as  "physiological  good  sense." 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  55 

Milk  should  be  sipped,  not  taken  in  large  swallows. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  when  the  milk  reaches  the 
stomach  it  is  turned  into  solid  curd.  If  it  enters  the 
stomach  in  small  quantities  it  is  curdled  in  small  masses 
which  are  easily  digested.  If  it  enters  in  large  quantities 
at  a  time,  it  is  curdled  in  large  masses,  which  are  acted 
upon  more  slowly  by  the  juices  of  the  stomach,  and  which 
frequently  become  very  sour  during  the  process. 

Last  but  not  least,  the  mother  should  always  arrange 
to  secure  pleasant  and  restful  conditions  at  the  home  meal 
time.  It  has  been  proved  by  experiments  upon  both 
human  beings  and  animals  that  the  process  of  assimilation 
is  more  rapid  and  more  thorough  when  one  is  happy  and 
contented.  Anger,  worry,  and  excitement  all  check  diges- 
tion. 

3.    SIGNS  OF  GOOD  AND  BAD  NUTRITION 

It  will  be  worth  while  to  consider  next  the  signs  of 
good  or  bad  nourishment  in  the  child.  What  are  some 
of  the  forms  of  behavior  which  will  serve  as  an  index  to 
the  physical  conditions?  It  is  a  matter  upon  which  a 
mother  cannot  afford  to  relax  her  watchfulness.  There 
have  been  instances  without  number  when  the  very  famil- 
iarity of  daily  intercourse  has  rendered  the  mother  unable 
to  see  signs  of  bad  nutrition  until  it  was  too  late  to  remove 
the  cause  of  it. 

There  are  four  simple  ways  by  which  the  mother  may 
discover  if  her  child  is  being  well-nourished.  First,  by  his 
color;  second,  by  his  attitude;  third,  by  his  movements; 
fourth  by  his  growth. 


56  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

Color.  The  color  of  a  healthy,  well-nourished  child, 
is  pinkish.  The  lips  are  pink  and  the  flesh  under  the  finger 
nails  is  pink.  If  you  press  the  flesh  at  almost  any  point 
the  white  spot  which  results  will  disappear  at  once.  The 
color  of  a  badly  nourished  child  is  bluish  or  sallow.  The 
lips  have  a  tinge  of  blue;  so  has  the  flesh  under  the  finger 
nails.  The  white  spot  resulting  from  pressure  remains 
several  seconds. 

Attitude  and  Movements.  The  attitude  of  a  well- 
nourished  child  is  erect  and  suggestive  of  energy,  while 
that  of  an  ill-nourished  child  is  listless  and  limp.  The 
movements  of  a  well-nourished  child,  while  in  some  cases 
almost  constant,  are  always  under  control  of  the  will. 
Those  of  a  badly  nourished  child  are  automatic,  uncon- 
scious and  jerky.  Among  the  latter  movements  are 
twitching  of  the  muscles,  especially  those  of  the  face  and 
shoulders,  biting  the  nails  and  chewing  the  tongue. 
Nature  puts  out  no  more  sure  and  inevitable  danger  sign 
than  these  unconscious  movements,  and  the  wise  mother 
will  not  neglect  them. 

Growth.  The  growth  should  be  continuous.  It  is 
necessary  for  a  child  to  increase  in  size  and  weight.1  Ces- 
sation of  growth  may  be  produced  by  lack  of  nutrition,  but 
if,  after  all  possible  care  has  been  taken  with  the  child's 
diet  as  well  as  with  his  general  habits  of  living,  he  still 
fails  to  grow,  then  there  may  be  some  organic  disease 
which  demands  the  advice  of  a  careful  physician.  Dr. 
Griffith's  tables  of  normal  weight  and  height,  already 
quoted,  will  prove  useful  in  this  connection : 

1  E,  A.  Kirkpatrick,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  p.  22. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  57 

GROWTH    IN    HEIGHT    AND    WEIGHT    BETWEEN    THE    AGES    OF    TWO    AND 
SEVEN  YEARS1 

Age  Height  Weight 

2  years 31     inches  27  pounds 

3  years .35     inches  32  pounds 

4  years 37^2  inches  36  pounds 

5  years 40     inches  40  pounds 

6  years 43     inches  44  pounds 

7  years 45     inches  48  pounds 

The  noticeable  fact  about  this  table  is  that,  while  there 
is  a  constant  increase  during  the  entire  period,  the  gain  in 
both  height  and  weight  are  greater  during  the  earlier  part 
of  the  period  than  during  the  latter  part;  also,  that  the 
difference  in  height  is  proportionately  greater  than  in 
weight.  Of  course  there  will  be  variations  from  this  gen- 
eral average,  but  the  normal,  healthy  child  will  not  fall 
much  below  the  standard  except  perhaps  in  cases  where 
the  parents  are  small,  and  on  this  account  the  child's 
expectancy  of  size  is  less  than  the  average. 

Dr.  Griffith's  table  showing  the  average  size  of  the 
child's  head  and  chest,  up  to  the  fifth  year,  will  also  be 
interesting  and  useful. 

Age                                                    Size  of  Head  Size  of  Chest 

2  years 19     inches  18^  inches 

3  years 19^2  inches  20     inches 

5  years 21      inches  22     inches 

Coordination.  The  muscles  of  the  normal  child  will 
at  this  time  be  for  the  most  part  under  the  control  of  the 
will.  The  control  of  the  larger  freer  movements  come 
first,  while  special  control  of  the  smaller  and  more  delicate 
manipulations,  notably  those  of  the  fingers,  will  not  come 

1 J.  P.  C.  Griffith,  Care  of  the  Baby,  p.  53. 


58  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

until  after  the  close  of  this  period.  The  earlier  ability  to 
control  the  larger  muscles  does  not  come  because  the 
larger  muscles  develop  sooner  than  the  smaller  ones,  for 
even  in  a  very  young  infant,  it  is  noticeable  how  much 
strength  there  is  in  the  tiny  fingers.  Probably  there  is 
more  strength  in  a  baby's  fingers,  in  proportion  to  their 
size,  than  there  is  in  his  arms.  But  the  nerves  which  con- 
trol the  larger  muscles  are  the  first  ones  to  coordinate  or 
become  organized  in  the  brain,  and  this  is  the  condition 
of  voluntary  control.1 

4.    EYES,  EARS,  AND  THROAT 

We  may  now  pass  to  a  consideration  of  the  eyes  and 
ears,  the  importance  of  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  empha- 
size. From  the  time  when  the  baby  first  begins  to  use  his 
eyes  the  mother  can  learn  much  about  their  condition  by 
the  unconscious  use  which  he  makes  of  them.  The  ex- 
pression "eye-minded"  is  used  to  indicate  that  the  child 
receives  the  larger  share  of  his  impressions  through  the 
eyes.  "Ear-minded"  indicates  the  same  with  reference 
to  the  ears.  There  is  a  third  type  known  as  the  "motor- 
minded"  child.  This  kind  of  child  does  not  seem  to 
receive  his  impressions  more  through  one  sense  than  an- 
other, but  develops  by  means  of  his  general  contact  with 
the  activities  of  life.  In  all  probability,  the  eye-minded 
child  does  not  hear  quite  as  well  as  does  the  average  child, 
while  the  ear-minded  child  does  not  see  quite  as  well. 
Watch  carefully  for  incipient  deafness  or  imperfect 
vision,  as  they  are  often  suggested  by  the  above  mani- 
festations. 

1  Dr.  C.  H.  Judd,  Class  Lecture,  University  of  Chicago,  Feb.,  1910. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  59 

Eye  Troubles.  There  are  three  common  eye  troubles, 
besides  ordinary  weak  eyes.  Weak  eyes  are  often  de- 
pendent upon  general  physical  conditions,  and  the  eye 
may  give  the  first  positive  indication  that  your  child  is 
not  well.  Bathe  weak  eyes  in  warm  water  and  witch 
hazel  or  a  solution  of  boracic  acid.  Either  will  bring 
relief. 

The  three  common  eye  troubles  referred  to  are  near- 
sightedness  (  myopia  ) ,  farsightedness  (  hypermetropia  ) , 
and  the  imperfect  focusing  of  the  eyes  (astigmatism).1 
Every  home  where  there  are  children  should  have  a  copy 
of  the  card  known  as  "Snellen's  Vision  Test."  It  can 
be  obtained  for  a  few  cents  from  F.  A.  Hardy  &  Com- 
pany, 131  Wabash  Avenue,  Chicago.  This  should  be 
used  at  least  once  a  month  during  the  growing  years  of 
the  child's  life.  The  card  will  explain  itself.  In  using 
the  card  test,  try  one  eye  at  a  time.  The  radiating  lines 
upon  the  card  should  look  alike.  Otherwise  there  is 
astigmatism.  If  the  test  is  not  satisfactory,  and  if  there 
are  marked  unfavorable  conditions,  which  you  cannot 
affect  by  diet  and  the  general  care  of  the  child,  he  should 
be  taken  to  an  oculist. 

Ear  Troubles.  As  to  the  ears,  the  mother  will  be  able 
to  discover  incipient  deafness  both  by  eye-mindness,  as 
mentioned  above,  and  by  the  slowness  with  which  the 
child  responds  to  the  voice.  If,  however,  these  tests  are 
not  enough,  take  a  watch  and  note  how  far  from  the  ear 
1  a  person  with  perfect  hearing  can  detect  its  ticking  in  a 
quiet  room.  If  there  is  much  difference  between  this 
and  the  distance  at  which  the  child  can  hear  the  ticking, 

1  Francis  Warner,  Study  of  Children,  p.  29. 


60  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

take  the  child  to  an  aurist  and  have  a  thorough  test  made. 
It  will  sometimes  be  discovered  that  the  tonsils  have  be- 
come enlarged  and  hard  and  that  their  removal  is  neces- 
sary in  order  that  the  ear  may  be  properly  treated. 
Adenoids  and  growths  of  a  similar  nature  should  be  re- 
moved as  soon  as  discovered.  Any  investigation  of  the 
condition  of  the  ear  leads  usually  by  a  direct  route  into 
the  mouth  and  throat.1 

Breathing.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  overcome  mouth- 
breathing,  when  once  the  habit  has  become  fixed.  It  is 
both  the  cause  and  the  effect  of  an  abnormal  condition  of 
the  nose  or  throat.  This  condition  may  be  the  result  of 
catarrh,  polypi,  or  adenoids.  Watch  carefully  and  see 
if  your  mouth-breathing  child  is  not  slightly  deaf.  See 
if  he  detects  odors  quickly.  Find  if  there  is  a  dull  pain 
between  his  eyes.  Any  one  of  these  symptoms  indicates 
a  condition  which  requires  the  advice  of  a  physician.  If 
mouth-breathing  is  not  the  result  of  improper  conditions, 
it  is  sure  to  be  the  cause  of  them.  The  nose  is  the  proper 
entrance  and  exit  for  the  air  which  is  taken  into  the  lungs. 
If  the  air  is  habitually  taken  in  through  the  mouth,  it  is 
inevitable  that  obstructions  should  occur  in  the  passage 
through  which  it  ought  to  go  and  does  not.  In  nasal- 
breathing  the  air  entering  the  lungs  is  warmed,  moistened 
and  purified.  Nasal-breathing  is  an  important  factor  in 
the  nutrition  of  the  brain,  and  without  it  decreased  mental 
ability  is  frequently  observed.2 

There  are  a  few  simple  methods  of  treatment  which 

1  Francis  Warner,  Study  of  Children,  p.  22. 

2W.  H  Burnham,  Hygiene  of  the  Nose,  Pedagogical  Seminary, 
1900. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  6l 

experience  has  shown  to  be  helpful  in  the  breaking  up  of 
mouth-breathing.  If  taken  in  the  first  stages,  closing 
the  child's  mouth  as  often  as  you  see  it  open  will  often 
correct  the  difficulty.  Or  the  child  may  be  placed  in  such 
a  position  that  the  head  inclines  toward  the  chest.  As 
soon  as  the  child  is  old  enough  to  appreciate  for  himself 
the  bad  effects  of  the  habit,  you  may  accomplish  much 
by  talking  with  him  about  it  and  securing  his  cooperation 
in  overcoming  it. 

5.    THE  NERVOUS  CHILD 

We  must  now  consider  a  type  of  child  which  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  common.  I  refer  to  the  nervous 
child.  The  nervous  system  is  the  connecting  link  between 
the  body  and  the  mind.  It  has  been  called  the  coordinat- 
ing organ  of  the  entire  mechanism.  So  closely  is  the 
nervous  system  linked  with  the  consciousness  that  modern 
psychological  works  begin  their  discussion  with  a  careful 
description  and  analysis  of  the  nervous  system.  We  who 
live  our  lives  from  day  to  day,  hardly  giving  a  thought 
to  the  question  of  how  we  happen  to  be  able  to  feel  and 
think  and  act,  do  not  realize  the  wonderful  complexity 
of  this  most  wonderful  part  of  the  human  system,  nor 
how  serious  may  be  the  consequences  of  any  interference 
with  its  normal  functioning. 

The  Nerves.  Running  throughout  the  body  and  prac- 
tically touching  every  part  of  it  are  what  might  be  called 
innumerable  little  paths.1  These  paths  lead  from  the 
surface  of  the  body  to  its  center  and  back  again.  They 
consist  of  bundles  of  tiny  fibers  wrapped  in  tissue.  These 

1  Dr.  C.  H.  Judd  Psychology,  Chapter  III. 


62  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

fibers  know  how  to  speed  a  message  from  the  outside 
straight  to  headquarters  and  never  pause  until  an  answer 
has  been  hurried  on  to  some  other  portion  of  the  body. 
The  whole  process  requires  less  time  than  it  takes  to  tell 
it.  Exactly  how  this  transit  back  and  forth  is  accom- 
plished no  one  has  yet  been  able  to  discover.  When  an 
impression  is  received  through  any  of  the  senses,  it  darts 
like  a  flash  to  the  spinal  cord.  From  here  it  may  carry 
a  message  of  motion  to  some  particular  muscle.  Or,  if 
its  mission  is  a  more  complex  one,  it  may  speed  to  the 
brain,  where  in  an  instant,  either  alone  or  joined  with 
another  impulse  from  some  other  part  of  the  body,  it 
passes  back  again  along  the  established  channels  until  it 
reaches  the  muscle  which  it  is  to  move.  Everywhere  there 
are  paths  for  the  reception,  continuation  and  discharge  of 
these  impulses. 

The  outer  tissue  of  the  brain,  which  is  known  as  the 
cortex,  is  the  signal  station  where  impulses  are  received.1 
It  is  thought  that  upon  this  cortical  area  can  be  localized 
the  different  centers  which  control  sensory  impulses  and 
motor  responses.  There  are  also  areas  where  it  is  likely 
that  these  impulses  coordinate  or  work  together.  These 
latter  are  called  association  areas.  Conscious  processes 
depend  upon  the  organized  activity  of  these  areas.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  while  the  paths  for  the  simple 
sensory  impulses  and  motor  responses  are  well  developed 
from  the  first,  those  parts  of  the  cortex  known  as  the 
association  areas  are  left  unfinished  in  order  that  they 
may  receive  the  development  which  comes  through  indi- 
vidual experience.  These  association  areas  continue  to 

1 J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  pp.  34,  35,  36. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  63 

be  subject  to  the  impressions  which  come  from  individual 
experience  well  on  into  life.1 

The  Nervous  Child.  Any  interference  with  the  normal 
functioning  of  the  nervous  system  is  known  as  nervous- 
ness. The  nervous  child  is  one  whose  nervous  system  is 
not  doing  its  full  duty  in  one  or  more  of  a  countless 
number  of  ways.  It  may  be  the  inability  to  control  the 
output  of  nervous  energy.  This  may  be  shown  in  excita- 
bility, irritability,  restlessness,  and  impatience.  Or  on  the 
other  hand,  the  nervous  system  may  show  its  derange- 
ment by  a  lack  of  the  normal  amount  of  activity.  In  this 
case  the  child  will  appear  listless  and  tired.  Nervousness 
may  pass  beyond  the  symptomatic  stage  into  actual  dis- 
ease, as  in  chorea  or  St.  Vitus'  dance,  and  in  a  nervous 
breakdown.  In  chorea  there  are  convulsive  twitchings  of 
the  muscles  or  limbs.2  Among  the  signs  of  a  nervous 
breakdown  are  depression  of  the  angles  of  the  mouth, 
horizontal  furrows  across  the  forehead.  The  eyes  are 
fixed  or  wandering.  The  pupils  may  be  dilated.  There 
may  be  a  blue  coloration  under  the  eyes  and  a  broad  white 
line  about  the  mouth  with  red  spots  on  the  cheeks.  The 
pulse  will  be  either  too  fast  or  too  slow.  The  head  may 
be  bent  forward  and  the  shoulders  carried  at  different 
heights.  What  movements  there  are  will  be  jerky  and 
unnatural.  It  is  impossible  for  one  suffering  in  this  way 
to  concentrate  his  attention  upon  anything  for  long.  In- 
vestigations have  shown  that  large  numbers  of  nervous 
breakdowns  of  this  kind  are  due  to  poor  nutrition  and 

1  Warner,  Study  of  Children,  p.  70 ;  Swift,  Mind  in  the  Making, 
p.  148. 

2  S.  H.  Rowe,  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child,  p.  70. 


64  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

bad  air.  Contributing  causes  are  lack  of  sleep,  irregu- 
larity in  eating,  excitement,  shocks,  the  use  of  tobacco, 
and  heredity.  Of  course,  all  children  are  full  of  nerves 
which  may  declare  themselves  at  times,  but  the  watchful 
mother  will  notice  and  improve  unfavorable  conditions 
before  the  extreme  point  is  reached. 

The  Outward  Signs.  Ask  your  child  to  extend  his 
hands  in  front  of  him  in  as  nearly  a  horizontal  position 
as  possible,  with  the  palms  down.  Notice  if  the  arms 
droop,  if  the  fingers  quiver  and  twitch,  if  the  thumbs  sag. 
Notice  also  if  at  the  small  of  the  back  there  is  a  definite 
curvature  inward.1  These  are  all  signs  of  a  nervous  tem- 
perament and  may  be  accompanied  by  further  and  per- 
haps less  well-defined  indications,  as  an  impulsive  man- 
ner, strong  social  instinct,  a  tendency  to  wake  fulness  at 
night,  especially  when  over-tired  or  excited,  a  grinding 
of  the  teeth  during  sleep,  and  a  twitching  of  the  muscles. 
The  hand  of  a  nervous  child  will  droop  at  the  wrist  with 
the  thumb  more  or  less  widely  separated. 

Stammering.  The  stammering  child  is  always  of  the 
nervous  type.  The  child  stammers  because,  when  he 
attempts  to  speak,  the  muscles  required  in  articulation 
become  rigid  and  are  not  under  the  control  of  the  will. 
This  rigidity  may  spread  to  other  parts  of  the  face,  and  in 
some  instances  affects  the  expression.  Stammering  is 
purely  a  nervous  trouble,  and  the  best  remedy  is  to  im- 
prove as  far  as  possible  the  general  nervous  condition. 
Regular  physical  exercises  with  repeated  full  breathing 
will  be  helpful.  Strive  to  have  the  child  speak  slowly, 
especially  when  beginning  to  speak. 

1  Francis  Warner,  Study  of  Children,  p.  in. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS         65 

Preventives.  What  are  some  of  the  things  which  may 
be  done  for  the  nervous  child  at  the  very  outset,  before 
his  condition  becomes  serious?  He  should  have  plenty 
of  sleep,  plenty  of  good,  nourishing  food,  and  plenty  of 
fresh  air.  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  no  American 
child  has  enough  sleep.  The  child  who  needs  the  most 
sleep  is  the  very  one  who  will  not  take  it.  It  is  much 
the  same  in  eating.  No  parent,  however  anxious,  can 
force  food  down  a  child's  throat,  and  this  would  not  be 
a  wise  procedure  even  if  the  nourishment  were  neces- 
sary. As  for  fresh  air,  it  is  often  difficult  for  a  family 
living  in  the  city  to  so  arrange  its  habits  that  the  child 
can  be  out  of  doors  as  much  as  he  should  be.  Sending 
him  into  the  country  to  live  apart  from  his  parents  is  a 
heroic  remedy  and  has  many  obvious  disadvantages.  But 
much  can  be  done  under  the  ordinary  conditions  of  home 
life  to  assist  the  child  in  strengthening  his  nerves.  To 
provide  enough  sleep,  the  mother  may  take  advantage  of 
every  opportunity  that  is  presented.  She  will  set  the 
regular  bedtime  at  an  early  hour  and  not  deviate  from  it. 
If  the  child,  when  put  to  bed  at  seven  o'clock,  tosses  about 
and  gets  wider  and  wider  awake,  she  will  try  half  past 
seven.  Every  child  under  seven  years  of  age  should  be 
in  bed  at  half  past  seven,  except  perhaps  in  the  longest 
days  of  summer. 

The  mother  can  also  arrange  the  food  in  new  and  at- 
tractive ways.  When  one  kind  of  nourishing  food  is 
rejected,  she  may  try  another  kind  that  is  equally  nour- 
ishing but  more  palatable.  It  is  worth  much  care  and 
effort  to  establish  the  habit  of  eating  plain  and  nourishing 
foods. 


66  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

For  fresh  air,  secure  just  as  many  bare-headed,  bare- 
footed, tree-climbing,  romping  summers  as  you  possibly 
can  for  both  the  boy  and  the  girl.  In  later  life,  every 
such  summer  will  prove  to  be  one  of  the  most  precious 
gifts  which  the  child  could  have  received  at  your  hands. 
Also,  do  not  fail  to  provide  every  possible  facility  for 
fresh  air  at  night.  Care  in  this  respect  during  the  grow- 
ing years  will  prove  an  invaluable  aid  to  sound  health. 
Frequent  rubbings  of  the  spinal  column,  and  especially 
the  small  of  the  back,  are  always  beneficial  to  the  nervous 
child.  Make  the  palm  of  your  hand  as  flat  as  possible. 
While  doing  this,  press  the  different  vertebrae  in  turn 
with  the  tips  of  your  fingers.  Any  growing  child  will 
like  this  rubbing,  whether  he  is  nervous  or  not. 

6.   FATIGUE 

The  subject  of  fatigue  is  also  much  under  discussion 
at  the  present  time.  This  is  undoubtedly  a  more  impor- 
tant item  in  the  schoolroom  than  in  the  home.  General 
physical  weariness  need  cause  no  anxiety  unless  in  your 
judgment  it  comes  with  too  little  exertion  or  remains  too 
long.  Ordinary  children  will  give  up  to  physical  fatigue 
long  before  it  injures  them.  Nature  has  wisely  provided 
this  condition.  It  is  even  doubtful  if  the  unstimulated 
child  will  tire  his  eyes  to  a  dangerous  extent,  especially 
if  they  are  normally  strong.  In  the  case  of  mental  fatigue, 
also,  it  is  seldom  that  the  ordinary  healthy,  unstimulated 
child  will  be  injured  by  it.  He  yields  easily  to  mental 
fatigue,  as  he  does  to  physical,  even  under  the  stimulus  of 
the  schoolroom.  I  do  not  mean  that  the  child  will  not 
become  tired,  but  that  the  average  child  will  not  become 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  67 

too  tired.  With  the  nervous  child  it  is  different.  Here 
the  action,  both  physical  and  mental,  is  spasmodic  and 
it  is  impossible  to  be  certain  just  how  much  work  can  be 
done  before  the  danger  point  is  reached.  This  danger 
point  may  be  reached  before  you  are  conscious  of  it. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  USE  IN  CLUB  STUDY 

1.  Give  an  outline  of  the  previous  chapter. 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  connection  between  the  mind  and  body? 

3.  How  does  Warner  define  the  normal  child  ?    The  perfect  child  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  the  problem  of  the  child's  diet? 

5.  Describe  briefly  the  process  of  digestion. 

6.  What  three  specific  needs  of  the  growing  child  does  the  food 

fulfil? 

7.  What  are  the  three  main  classes  of  foods? 

8.  Describe    the    proteids;    the    carbohydrates;    the    fats.     Give 

examples  of  each. 

9.  Name  the  foods  containing  the  most  mineral  matter. 

10.  What  do  you  know  about  different  foods  for  different  ages  of 

the  child? 

11.  What  would  you  feed  the  listless   child?    the  warm-blooded 

child?  the  thin;  nervous  child? 

12.  What  precaution  is  needed  in  the  case  of  salty  foods? 

13.  What  is  the  danger  in  too  much  proteid? 

14.  How  should  milk  be  taken?    Why? 

15.  Explain  four  ways  to  discover  if  the  child  is  well  nourished. 

16.  Explain  the  development  of  the  muscles  and  nerves. 

17.  What   is   meant  by   the   expressions   "eye-mindedness,"    "ear- 

mindedness,"  "motor-mindedness"  ? 

18.  What  is  said  about  eye  troubles  ?    Ear  troubles  ? 

19.  Explain  the  bad  effects  of  mouth  breathing. 

20.  What  is  the  work  of  the  nerves? 

21.  What  are  the  signs  of  nervousness? 

22.  What  can  be  done  for  the  nervous  child? 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  CHILD  FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS 
i.    How  THE  MIND  GROWS 

We  now  proceed  to  a  more  exclusive  consideration  of 
the  child's  mental  life  during  this  same  period.  The 
child  has,  almost  imperceptibly  to  the  mother  during  the 
second  twelve  months  of  his  life,  begun  to  build  up 'his 
own  little  individual  existence.  Of  course,  he  is  yet  de- 
pendent upon  the  mother  for  almost  everything,  but  he 
does  not  seem  to  be  altogether  conscious  of  the  fact.  He 
performs  all  kinds  of  acts  directed  by  his  own  will.  It 
is  a  delight  to  him  to  find  how  much  control  he  has  over 
his  own  body  and  over  the  things  with  which  he  comes 
in  contact.  The  study  of  his  development  now  becomes 
more  interesting  because  more  things  are  happening. 

Let  us  see  how  this  baby  mind  receives  material  for 
its  growth.  The  mind  is  connected  with  the  outside  world 
by  means  of  the  bodily  senses.  Through  the  data  which 
is  brought  to  the  mind  by  way  of  impressions  upon  the 
senses  of  sight,  sound,  touch,  taste  and  smell,  the  mind 
gradually  becomes  able  to  interpret  the  meaning  of  the 
experiences  which  the  body  is  undergoing  each  day.  On 
the  other  hand  the  states  or  processes  of  the  mind  can 
•be  expressed  and  interpreted  through  the  behavior  of 
the  body.  A  study  of  the  body  then,  as  pursued  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  and  necessarily  to  some  extent  in  the 
present  chapter,  will  reveal  much  more  than  mere  facts 

68 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  69 

about  the  body.  As  was  said  above,  the  senses  are  chan- 
nels along  which  impressions  from  without  are  crowding 
in  upon  the  brain.  If  as  the  child  passes  his  second  mile 
post  on  the  journey  of  life,  these  senses,  especially  the 
eyes  and  ears,  are  on  duty,  the  little  mind  is  having  all 
it  can  do  to  handle  the  experiences  which  every  day  and 
hour  are  bringing  to  it.  It  is  of  intense  interest  to  the 
mother  to  watch  and  see  how  rapidly  her  two-year-old  is 
becoming  sensible  of  the  outside  world. 

The  development  of  the  infant  mind  from  a  condition 
which  is  practically  one  of  vacancy  or  nothingness  to  a 
state  where  all  the  normal  mental  processes  are  carried  on, 
follows  regular  laws. 

Sensations.  The  very  earliest  impressions  are  called 
sensations.  These  sensations  include  not  only  a  con- 
sciousness of  the  existence  of  things  in  general,  but  also 
the  consciousness  that  these  things  have  the  fundamental 
qualities  which  appeal  to  the  different  senses.  For  exam- 
ple, the  eyes  note  the  color  and  shape  of  things.  The 
ear  discovers  whether  the  object  makes  any  sound.  The 
taste  finds  that  they  are  sweet,  sour  or  bitter.  The  touch 
tells  whether  they  are  hard,  soft,  hot  or  cold,  smooth  or> 
rough,  while  the  nose  is  conscious  of  a  pleasant  or 
offensive  odor. 

Perception.  During  the  first  weeks  of  the  infant's 
life  these  simple  unassociated  sensations  become  associ- 
ated with  other  elements;  namely,  time  and  place.  In 
other  words,  there  is  not  only  a  consciousness  of  things 
with  color,  shape,  hardness,  sweetness,  etc.,  but  there  is 
a  consciousness  of  when  and  where  these  sensations  were 
experienced.  This  association  of  sensation  with  time  and 


70  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

place  forms  a  mental  process  of  a  different  character  from 
the  first,  and  is  now  called  a  perception. 

Idea.  After  the  first  dawning  of  perception  there  fol- 
lows a  period  when  this  is  the  highest  process  of  which 
the  mind  is  capable.  Gradually  another  element  creeps 
in,  the  presence  of  which  indicates  that  the  mind  has 
reached  the  third  stage  in  its  enlargement.  This  next 
element  is  a  thought  of  a  cause  for  what  has  been  per- 
ceived. The  perception  to  which  the  thought  of  a  cause 
has  been  joined  is  called  an  idea. 

The  mind,  equipped  with  the  idea,  even  though  very 
simple  at  first,  is  on  the  high  road  to  fullest  mentality. 
But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  at  any  time  that  the  impres- 
sions which  the  child  is  absorbing  through  his  senses  and 
the  use  which  he  is  making  of  the  impressions  are  becom- 
ing the  basis  of  his  future  ideas  and  future  habits. 

The  Special  Senses.  The  question  then,  as  to  whether 
the  child's  senses  are  perfect,  becomes  one  of  vital  im- 
portance. The  eyes  and  ears  play  the  largest  part  here. 
If  any  trouble  is  suspected  in  these  important  organs 
during  infancy,  it  will  be  well  to  consult  a  specialist.  In 
the  case  of  older  children,  simple  home  tests  will  often 
yield  the  desired  information. 

Eyes.  One  of  the  most  familiar  manifestations  of 
imperfect  eyes  is  nearsightedness.  This  is  shown  by  hold- 
ing the  book  too  near  the  eyes  in  reading  or  looking  at 
pictures.  Squinting  and  wrinkling  the  forehead  are 
symptoms  of  the  same  defect.  Notice  if  your  child  rec- 
ognizes easily  people  whom  you  are  sure  he  knows,  or 
if  he  seems  indifferent  to  manifest  beauty  either  in  nature 
or  art.  Satisfy  yourself  whether  he  looks  at  things  as 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  71 

other  children  do.  Any  redness  in  the  eyeball  or  lid 
indicates  some  abnormal  condition.  Probably  simple 
treatment  by  a  specialist  will  remove  the  difficulty  if  taken 
in  time.  If  the  defect  is  organic  and  can  only  be  reached 
by  the  fitting  of  glasses,  this  should  not  be  delayed.  Re- 
member that  early  treatment  of  imperfect  eyes  may  save 
your  child  from  a  difficult  and  dangerous  operation  in 
after  life.  Let  me  illustrate  by  an  actual  experience. 

An  Illustration.  Several  years  ago,  when  I  was  visit- 
ing one  of  the  rooms  in  a  public  school,  I  noticed  two 
boys  sitting  at  a  table  in  the  front  part  of  the  room.  The 
teacher  observed  my  look  of  inquiry  and  hastened  to 
explain :  "These  are  my  two  nearsighted  boys/'  she  said. 
"They  have  been  failing  in  their  lessons  ever  since  they 
came  into  this  room.  It  was  only  the  other  day  I  dis- 
covered that  they  could  not  see  what  was  written  on  the 
board.  Now,  I  have  them  right  up  in  front  where  they 
can  see  everything  I  do,  and  they  are  doing  finely.  They 
are  going  to  be  fitted  with  glasses  soon,  and  then  every- 
thing will  be  all  right."  These  boys  were  ten  or  twelve 
years  of  age,  members  of  representative  families  of  the 
city.  This  incident  shows  how  serious  eye  defects  may 
be  overlooked  even  by  careful  parents.  Both  of  these 
boys  have  suffered  great  handicaps  in  their  life  work  on 
account  of  their  defective  eyes,  and  one  of  them  is  still 
threatened  with  permanent  blindness. 

Ears.  Indications  of  ear  defects  are  perhaps  not  so 
numerous,  but  the  watchful  mother  will  detect  them.  A 
child  often  seems  disobedient  because  he  does  not  hear 
your  voice  or  that  of  a  teacher  when  he  is  spoken  to.  A 
child  who  has  ever  suffered  from  earache  cannot  be  too 


72  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

closely  watched  for  signs  of  deafness.  Do  not  wait  long 
before  consulting  a  specialist  after  you  have  satisfied  your- 
self that  your  child's  ears  are  not  absolutely  perfect. 

The  Nervous  System.  The  nervous  system  and  the 
importance  of  its  proper  functioning  have  been  spoken 
of  in  the  previous  chapter,  but  I  will  illustrate  a  little 
further  here.  Many  things,  which  in  the  growing  child 
pass  simply  for  disagreeable  habits,  are  manifestations 
of  nervousness.  Among  these  are  standing  on  one  foot 
and  changing  quickly  to  the  other,  jerking  of  hands  and 
arms,  inattention  when  spoken  to,  quick  glancing  about 
of  the  eyes  when  evidently  no  particular  object  is  being 
looked  at,  thoughtless  and  foolish  questioning,  failure  in 
obedience,  unconscious  fumbling  with  any  article  within 
reach  or  paroxysms  of  uncontrollable  crying. 

Illustrations.  Let  me  give  you  an  illustration  of  the 
last  tendency,  and  of  the  part  which  was  thoughtlessly 
taken  by  the  parents.  A  nervous  boy  of  eleven  brought 
home  from  school  a  very  unsatisfactory  report  card.  His 
mother  glanced  at  it  and  without  premeditation  issued  a 
forcible  and  extended  reprimand.  The  boy  passed  out 
of  the  room  and  the  incident  passed  from  the  mother's 
mind.  After  the  child  had  retired  for  the  night,  his 
mother  heard  him  crying  as  if  his  heart  would  break. 
Upon  going  to  him  and  asking  him  the  cause  of  his  grief, 
he  sobbed  out,  "Oh,  that  awful  card,  that  awful  card.  I 
wish  I  was  dead.  I  can  never  do  anything  right."  The 
mother,  realizing  too  late  the  danger  of  the  boy's  condi- 
tion, at  once  set  about  trying  to  repair  the  mischief  she 
had  done.  She  found  it  impossible  to  get  him  quiet  in 
Jess  than  an  hour.  Any  reference  to  the  card  brought 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  73 

fresh  signs  of  grief.  Finally,  his  mind  was  led  entirely 
away  from  the  painful  subject  and  centered  upon  an 
excursion  into  the  country  which  had  been  planned  for 
the  next  day.  Then  he  fell  asleep. 

There  is  another  word  upon  this  point.  A  nervous 
child  asked  his  father  for  a  dime  to  buy  what  the  father 
considered  an  unnecessary  article.  Finally,  the  father 
grudgingly  threw  the  dime  upon  the  table,  saying,  "What 
is  the  use  of  giving  you  money?  You  don't  know  how 
to  take  care  of  it."  Later,  the  child  was  heard  sobbing 
in  the  next  room.  Upon  being  questioned,  he  declared 
through  his  tears,  "Oh,  papa  thinks  I  am  so  bad!  I 
don't  know  what  to  do." 

Of  course,  children  must  be  told  of  their  faults  and 
corrected  for  them.  That  is  a  manifest  part  of  the  par- 
ent's duty.  But  there  should  always  be  the  object  in  view 
of  helping  the  child  to  overcome  his  faults.  No  parent 
has  ever,  or  ever  can,  justify  himself  in  flinging  ouf 
miserable  little  derogatory  references  to  the  weakness  of 
the  child  with  no  other  object  in  view  than  to  relieve  his 
or  her  own  irritability.  In  the  case  of  a  nervous  child, 
it  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  harm  which  may  result 
from  such  action.  The  normal  development  of  the  mind 
cannot  take  place  under  abnormal  nervous  conditions.  A 
child  should  receive  attention  for  any  manifestation  of 
nervous  disturbances  such  as  have  just  been  mentioned, 
as  promptly  as  he  would  if  he  should  begin  to  limp  or  put 
his  hand  to  his  side. 

Environment.  As  it  is  of  supreme  importance  that 
the  senses  of  the  child  be  in  good  condition,  it  is  also 
imperative  that  the  environment  of  the  child,  out  of  which 


74  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

comes  the  'material  whence  the  senses  draw  their  impres- 
sions, be  both  physically  and  mentally  wholesome.  The 
responsibility  of  the  mother  for  this  environment  is  mani- 
festly great.  The  question  often  arises  in  this  connec- 
tion whether  the  environment  of  the  child  should  be  made 
more  stimulating  than  it  naturally  is.  In  answering  a 
question  of  this  kind,  the  disposition  and  the  original 
physical  and  mental  equipment  of  the  child  must  be  the 
controlling  factor.  The  average  normal  child  needs  no 
stimulus  except  that  which  is  supplied  to  him  by  whole- 
some surroundings.  Great  rapidity  of  development  is 
neither  necessary  nor  desirable.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  mother,  by  means  of  observation  or  comparison,  dis- 
covers that  her  child  is  not  developing  with  the  normal 
rapidity,  it  may  be  the  wisest  thing  for  her  to  cultivate 
a  more  stimulating  environment.  She  should  find  out  if 
possible,  what  is  the  cause  of  the  delay  in  development. 

2.    SOME  THINGS  WHICH  RETARD  NORMAL  DEVELOPMENT 

Shyness.  There  is  one  peculiar  trait  of  character 
which,  in  the  growing  child,  often  tends  to  retard  normal 
development.  We  will  call  it  shyness  here,  and  will  only 
refer  to  it  briefly  by  way  of  illustration,  as  it  is  treated 
at  some  length  in  a  later  chapter.  The  mother  may  do 
much  at  a  very  early  age  towards  preventing  abnormal 
shyness  from  becoming  a  handicap  to  her  child's  mental 
development.  Take  unusual  pains  to  have  him  express 
himself  freely  when  in  the  company  of  those  with  whom 
he  feels  perfectly  at  home,  and  do  not  urge  him  to  do 
so  in  the  presence  of  strangers  until  he  is  old  enough  to 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  75 

be  reasoned  with  beforehand.  Above  all  things,  strive 
not  to  let  the  child  know  that  he  is  shy. 

Self-Consciousness.  In  studying  the  child's  mental 
growth  we  cannot  be  too  careful  to  preserve  in  him  lack 
of  self -consciousness.  He  must  not  consider  himself  an 
object  of  special  or  unusual  interest.  Self-consciousness 
comes  altogether  too  soon,  at  the  best.  With  some  chil- 
dren it  seems  to  be  present  inherently  regardless  of  any 
outside  influence.  It  has  often  been  shown  to  interfere 
with  normal  growth.  We  shall  be  greatly  helped  in  our 
effort  to  obtain  natural  conditions  if  we  remember  that 
the  most  intimate  personal  matters  may  be  discussed  by 
mother  and  child,  personal  questions  may  be  asked  and 
answered  frankly  and  truthfully  without  the  slightest 
embarrassment  to  either,  since  there  is  probably  nothing 
in  the  mind  of  the  child  to  prompt  the  discussion  or  the 
asking  of  the  questions  except  the  simplest  motives. 

Physical  Weakness.  In  regard  to  physical  weakness, 
there  are  countless  ways  in  which  it  affects  a  child's 
mental  development.  It  has  been  accepted  as  an  almost 
unfailing  rule  that  mental  defects,  and  in  many  cases 
moral  defects,  may  be  traced  back  to  a  physical  defect. 
Very  often  the  physical  weakness  shows  itself  in  advance 
of  any  mental  sign.  As  has  been  suggested  above,  the 
most  common  of  these  manifestations  are  weakness  of 
eyes,  ears,  nose,  throat,  and  nervous  system.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  school  children  often  show  conspicuous 
mental  dullness  when  it  is  difficult  to  find  any  connection 
with  a  physical  cause.  But  the  physical  defect,  although 
it  may  keep  itself  hidden  for  years,  will  sooner  or  later 
make  itself  prominent. 


76  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

An  understanding  of  this  close  connection  between  the 
mental  and  physical  parts  of  the  child  is  of  vital  impor- 
tance to  the  mother.  For  example,  suppose  that  a  child 
who  has  been  considered  normally  healthy  and  on  that 
account  has  received  no  special  attention,  begins  to  do  (or 
has  always  done)  poor  work  in  school.  The  teacher 
appeals  to  the  home.  Perhaps  in  the  majority  of  cases 
the  child  receives  a  reprimand  or  some  other  form  of 
discipline,  and  that  is  the  end  of  it.  Such  procedure  has 
repeatedly  been  shown  to  be  a  great  mistake.  The  mother 
should  search  for  the  physical  cause  of  the  trouble  and 
continue  to  search  until  she  finds  it.  In  some  cases  she 
will  find  causes  which  may  be  removed  at  once,  surfi  as 
eye,  ear,  and  throat  troubles.  In  other  cases,  she  will 
find  incipient  nervous  deterioration  or  organic  diseases 
which  will  require  special  and  consistent  attention  to  diet, 
exercise,  sleep,  and  fresh  air. 

3.    AVENUES  OF  APPROACH  TO  THE  CHILD'S  MIND 

Besides  the  general  knowledge  of  conditions  and  be- 
havior which  we  are  all  supposed  to  have  of  our  children, 
we  find  there  are  more  technical  avenues  of  approach, 
which  in  many  cases  are  of  very  great  aid,  in  knowing 
them  mentally.  Under  this  class  come  the  head,  the  face, 
the  eyes,  and  the  mouth. 

Head.  We  will  first  take  the  head  as  a  whole.  It  is 
usually  admitted  that  a  well-shaped  head  is  an  indication 
of  mental  ability,  but  there  are  so  many  exceptions  to  this 
rule  that  one  is  hardly  safe  in  relying  upon  it.  The  head 
should  not  be  too  large.  Warner  mentions  twenty-one 
inches  as  a  good  head  circumference  for  a  child  of  eight 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  77 

years.  As  we  are  considering  the  child  at  a  period  slightly 
younger  than  that,  he  may  fall  a  trifle  short  of  the  twenty- 
one  inches,  although  the  head  varies  but  slightly  during 
these  years,  even  through  periods  of  many  months.  A 
wide  and  high  forehead  is  a  fine  characteristic.  There 
should  not  be  lumps  on  the  forehead  either  on  the  side  or 
down  the  middle.  There  will  be  a  definite  projection  on 
the  back  of  the  head,  just  above  the  nape  of  the  neck. 

Face.  The  method  of  studying  the  mind  through  the 
face  has  become  an  important  one  among  educators,  and 
has  been  known  to  artists  for  a  long  time.  It  is  called 
"physiognomy"  and  has  been  defined  as  "the  art  and 
science  of  discovering  the  predominant  temper  and  other 
characteristic  qualities  of  the  mind  by  the  outward  ap- 
pearance, especially  by  the  features  of  the  face."1  Special 
important  features  are  noted  below  and  the  face  makes 
up  the  "toute  ensemble"  of  these  features.  Their  com- 
bination in  the  face,  together  with  certain  muscular  mani- 
festations not  connected  with  any  particular  feature, 
brings  out  points  not  evident  in  any  single  feature. 

Eyes.  The  eyes  of  the  normal  child  will  be  wide  open 
and  frank.  The  eyes  should  look  out  upon  their  own 
level  rather  than  up  or  down.  They  respond  very  quickly 
to  mental  conditions  and  for  that  reason  are  great  helps 
in  child  study.  The  familiar  figure  of  the  eyes  as  the 
windows  of  the  soul  is  more  than  a  mere  fancy.  There 
is  a  condition  of  brain-exhaustion  in  which  the  expres- 
sion of  the  eye  changes.  Not  only  that,  but  brain  ex- 
haustion is  sometimes  accompanied  by  an  uncontrollable 
twitching  of  the  muscles  around  the  eyes.  Dilated  pupils 

1  Francis  Warner,  A  Study  of  Children,  p.  58. 


78  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

indicate  excitement.  Frequently  repeated  indications  of 
brain  exhaustion  and  excitement  refer  us  back  again  to 
unsettled  nervous  conditions,  just  as  did  the  irregularity 
in  mental  development.  Just  a  word  here  as  to  the 
mother's  duty  when  she  has  noted  by  the  expression  of 
the  child's  face,  especially  dilated  eyes,  that  he  is  under 
unusual  nervous  excitement.  If  he  is  of  a  slow  and  slug- 
gish temperament,  such  an  experience  may  tend  to  wake 
him  up  and  make  him  see  things  not  noticed  before,  and 
so  be  an  actual  aid  to  development.  But  even  in  such 
a  case,  it  will  be  wise  to  watch  him  after  the  excitement 
has  subsided  and  see  if  there  is  any  unfavorable  reaction, 
such  as  listlessness,  sleeplessness,  or  lack  of  appetite.  But 
when  your  naturally  high-strung  child  comes  to  you  with 
his  eyes  bulging  and  his  nerves  trembling,  do  not  wait  to 
watch  for  after  effects,  for  they  are  almost  sure  to  be 
serious.  Get  the  child  away  from  the  exciting  environ- 
ment as  quickly  as  possible  and  hasten  to  divert  his  atten- 
tion from  the  cause  of  the  excitement.  If  you  take  him 
wisely  in  the  beginning,  you  may  save  him  from  any 
number  of  more  or  less  permanent  nervous  troubles. 

The  Mouth.  The  mouth  responds  to  mental  states 
nearly  as  promptly  as  do  the  eyes.  When  the  mouth  is 
held  open  unconsciously,  it  may  be  a  sign  of  dullness. 
The  nerve  centers  of  the  brain  do  not  respond  promptly 
to  what  should  be  the  normal  call  of  the  senses  to  close 
the  mouth.  Hold  your  own  mouth  open  for  a  few  sec- 
onds and  see  how  stupid  it  makes  you  feel.  Besides  this, 
the  open  mouth  will  encourage  mouth-breathing,  the  evils 
of  which  have  already  been  discussed.  If  the  child  holds 
his  mouth  open  try  to  stimulate  or  even  startle  him  by 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  79 

saying  something  to  him  unexpectedly  that  will  greatly 
interest  him  and  see  if  he  does  not  close  his  mouth.  If 
allowing  the  mouth  to  remain  open  is  merely  a  habit  into 
which  the  child  has  fallen,  simple  expedients  and  appeals 
will  overcome  it.  But  if  the  habit  persists  after  careful 
attention,  there  is  strong  likelihood  that  some  physical 
obstruction  exists  in  the  nose  or  throat  such  as  adenoid 
growths.  A  careful  examination  by  a  physician  is  then 
indispensable.  The  habit  of  grinning  when  the  child  is 
evidently  not  amused  shows  that  the  muscles  are  not  under 
the  control  of  the  brain  as  they  should  be.  Do  not  let 
this  tendency  become  fixed.  Ask  the  child  gently  what 
he  is  smiling  about  and  when  he  admits  there  is  nothing 
amusing  in  his  mind,  suggest  that  he  only  smile  when 
pleased.  Draw  his  mind  to  something  serious  and  see  if 
the  muscles  of  his  face  do  not  respond  by  relaxing.  There 
is  almost  sure  to  be  a  reaction  of  the  facial  expression 
upon  the  brain.  The  mother  may  know  that  she  has 
affected  the  brain  favorably  when  she  has  secured  the 
desired  facial  expression. 

4.    LANGUAGE  AS  A  SIGN  OF  BRAIN  DEVELOPMENT 

Words  and  Ideas.  There  is  another  manifestation  at 
this  period  which  affords  an  index  of  the  child's  mental 
development.  This  is  his  method  and  progress  in  acquir- 
ing control  of  language.  It  is  said  that  development  along 
this  line  helps  to  make  thoughts  and  ideas  clear.  It  is 
even  asserted  that  the  number  of  words  used  during  this 
early  period  corresponds  with  the  number  of  ideas  which 
are  forming  in  the  child's  mind.  But,  while  it  is  doubt- 
less true  that  the  ideas  become  clearer  with  the  growing 


80  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

ability  to  express  them,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  child 
has  ideas  or  at  least  is  able  to  connect  some  ideas  with 
words  which  are  spoken  to  him  before  he  is  able  to  use 
the  words  himself.  However  this  may  be,  it  has  been 
shown  in  many  instances  that  the  child's  failure  to  begin 
to  talk  at  the  proper  age  (any  time  after  twelve  or  four- 
teen months)  has  been  the  first  indication  of  an  abnormal 
mentality  of  which  later  years  have  furnished  more 
conclusive  proofs. 

Records.  It  is  particularly  desirable  to  keep  records  of 
the  child's  progress  in  language,  noting  the  words  which 
he  uses  and  even  the  ideas  associated  with  words  used 
by  yourself  and  directed  to  him.  This  is  a  much  simpler 
matter  than  it  is  to  tabulate  his  mental  advance  in  almost 
any  other  respect.  It  will  also  be  helpful  to  jot  down 
opposite  the  word  (with  the  exact  age  at  which  it  was 
first  used)  something  of  the  idea  which  you  think  this 
word  represented  in  the  child's  mind,  as  he  himself  used 
it.  Besides  helping  you  to  note  your  child's  advance- 
ment, this  record  will  be  useful  in  comparing  the  ad- 
vancement of  your  different  children,  and  should  a 
sufficiently  large  number  of  mothers  be  induced  to  keep 
such  records  they  would  form  valuable  data  for  students 
of  psychology  and  child  study.  For  example,  Miss  Shinn 
says  in  regard  to  her  little  niece  that  at  eleven  months 
of  age  there  were  eighty- four  words  which  they  felt  sure 
she  understood,  and  with  which  she  associated  ideas.  But 
even  during  the  last  four  days  of  the  tenth  month,  all 
they  dared  suspect  in  the  way  of  actual  language  was  "a 
faint  consistency  in  the  use  of  several  of  the  most  common 


PROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  8l 

sounds,  da,  ma,  developing  through  a  series  like  gang, 
gong,  a  gon  to  'gone/' 

Why  the  Baby  Learns  to  Talk.  The  use  of  language 
is  an  evolutionary  process,  and,  while  the  child  begins  at 
the  bottom  of  the  scale,  he  is  the  heir  of  this  linguistic 
evolution  in  the  sense  that  he  comes  into  the  world  with 
a  predisposition  to  talk.  The  language  develops  as  a 
result  of  the  child's  wants,  along  the  line  of  the  greatest 
service,  after  the  manner  of  biological  development.  An 
insidious  social  pressure  and  his  own  unanalyzed  social 
need  urge  the  little  fellow  on  to  his  task  of  conquering 
these  obstinate  words.  By  many  repetitions,  joined  with 
the  kindly  assistance  of  interested  adults,  who  imagine 
they  know  what  he  means  and  hasten  to  tell  him,  the 
child  makes  progress.  Each  word  mastered  and  con- 
nected with  its  object  or  experience  helps  to  form  a  back- 
ground upon  which  to  group  new,  words. 

Difficulties.  Step  by  step  the  baby  advances  in  his 
struggle  with  the  problem  of  learning  to  talk.  Some- 
times the  advance  is  rapid.  Sometimes  it  is  very  slow, 
but  every  phase  of  it  from  first  to  last  is  of  peculiar  in- 
terest to  the  mother.  Perhaps  few  mothers  realize  the 
difficulties  which  confront  the  child  as  he  comes  to  the 
time  of  adopting  conventional  symbols  or  words.  Imag- 
ine yourself  trying  to  learn  an  entirely  new  and  foreign 
language  and  you  will  be  able  to  sympathize  with  the 
baby's  trials  and  efforts.  At  first  the  baby  has  a  language 
of  his  own  in  intonation  and  gesture,  and  inherently  the 
symbols  which  he  must  acquire  have  no  connection  with 
the  objects  and  ideas  with  which  he  is  expected  to  asso- 
ciate them. 


82  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

General  Laws.  Carefully  recorded  observations  indi- 
cate that  there  are  certain  general  lines  along  which  the 
language  of  all  children  may  be  expected  to  grow.1  The 
first  few  months  of  the  baby's  life  are  the  pre-linguistic 
period.  This  does  not  mean  strictly  that  there  is  no  lan- 
guage, but  no  verbal  language.  The  first  language  of 
the  baby,  like  his  first  movements,  is  unconscious.  The 
first  language  has  been  classically  denominated  "the  pri- 
mordial squall,"  which  expresses  all  possible  states  of  dis- 
comfort that  the  baby  can  be  imagined  as  having.  In 
the  course  of  a  few  weeks  these  cries  are  differentiated 
into  expressions  of  hunger,  cold,  internal  pain,  pleading 
and  anger.  This  very  new  infant,  when  perfectly  com- 
fortable, utters  no  sound,  or  no  awareness  of  an  environ- 
ing world.  But  very  soon,  out  of  the  primordial  squall 
the  "primordial  babble"  is  developed,  by  means  of  which, 
in  innumerable  ways  of  his  own,  the  baby  expresses 
pleasurable  feelings.  The  primordial  squall  still  finds 
work  to  do  and  the  two  proceed  side  by  side.  The  first 
vocal  utterances  will  be  some  play  upon  the  vowel  a  and 
will  soon  be  followed  by  prefixing  to  it  the  consonant 
sound  of  b,  p  and  m.  The  first  attempt  upon  the  part 
of  the  baby  to  frame  real  words  is  probably  only  a  mus- 
cular reaction  in  imitation  of  the  lips  of  the  mother. 
Somewhere  about  the  second  month,  the  child's  utterances 
become  vaguely  purposeful. 

First  Smile.  Dr.  O'Shea  thinks  that  the  baby's  smile, 
which  probably  does  not  become  a  conscious  effort  until 
about  the  third  month,  is  the  baby's  first  effort  of  vocali- 
zation. This  same  writer  suggests  that  probably  "this 

1  Dr.  M.  V.  O'Shea,  Linguistic  Development  and  Education,  p.  20. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  83 

first  true  smile"  is  the  expression  of  a  marked  change 
taking  place  in  the  child's  adjustment  to  his  environments. 

Earliest  Expressions.  Standing  out  quite  definitely 
among  the  efforts  of  the  baby  to  express  himself  in  lan- 
guage are  the  "call  tones."  These  may  often  be  heard 
when  the  child  is  entirely  alone.  They  seem  to  express 
desire  for  and  satisfaction  in  some  form  of  muscular 
achievement.  These  call  tones  are  reproductions  of  the 
auditory  images  received  from  the  voices  of  those  about 
him.  One  or  two  will  be  taken  up  and  repeated  almost 
ad  infinitum.  Perhaps  when  these  have  been  thoroughly 
mastered,  the  tiny  linguist  puts  them  aside  and  takes  up 
another  pair.  No  definite  words  are  uttered  unless  by 
accident,  but  the  vocal  organs  are  being  exercised  and 
adjusted. 

First  Word  Formations.  The  process  of  actual  word 
formation  begins  not  far  from  the  eighth  month  and 
proceeds  with  such  rapidity  that,  in  all  probability,  as  the 
little  fellow  passes  his  first  annual  mile  post  he  is  being 
borne  on  in  the  struggle  faster  than  either  he  or  his  mother 
is  aware.  With  the  first  mastery  of  words  comes  the 
fascinating  voice  play,  when  words  are  uttered  over  and 
over  again  with  no  evident  object  except  the  pleasure  of 
uttering  them.  This  is  associated  but  not  identical  with 
the  later  linguistic  invention  where  the  child  forms  orig- 
inal words  adapted  to  his  own  experience.  The  extent  to 
which  the  latter  process  is  carried  on  depends  much  upon 
the  character  of  the  child's  mind.  An  imaginative  child 
will  go  on  for  years  inventing  not  only  new  terms  but 
new  experiences  to  which  the  new  terms  shall  apply. 

Nouns.     The   first   real  words    (or  attempts   at   real 


84  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

words)  are  usually  nouns  such  as  mamma,  papa,  bye-bye, 
milk,  water,  etc.  These  do  duty  for  entire  sentences.  As 
the  months  of  the  child's  life  multiply,  he  finds  himself 
possessed  of  ideas  which  require  a  larger  vocabulary  for 
their  expression. 

Verb.  He  still  makes  one  word  suffice  for  a  whole 
sentence,  but  now  it  is  likely  to  be  a  verb.  The  subject 
modifiers  are  added  by  means  of  gestures,  or  the  subject 
or  modifiers  may  be  given  and  the  verb  supplied  by  ges- 
tures. Thus,  take  may  mean  /  want  papa  to  take  me. 
Down  stands  for  I  want  to  get  down.  Innumerable  ex- 
pressions of  similar  import  show  clearly  where  the  em- 
phasis is  falling  in  the  enlarging  mental  processes.  As 
the  time  goes  by  and  experience  has  created  new  wants 
and  new  ways  of  'expressing  them,  new  words  are  added 
to  those  already  mastered. 

The  image  is  much  more  complete  than  the  verbal  ex- 
pression. My  little  son,  at  the  age  of  two  years,  used 
to  run  to  his  father  when  he  came  home  at  night,  extend 
his  arms  and  exclaim,  "Go  down  fy,  papa,  go  down  fy." 
What  the  child  meant  was,  "I  want  you  to  carry  me 
down  stairs  with  you  when  you  go  to  fix  the  fire  in  the 
furnace."  Such  expressions  as  hat  on,  go  bye-bye  are 
familiar  to  mothers  and  can  easily  be  interpreted. 

Personal  Pronoun.  The  use  of  the  personal  pronoun 
is  difficult  and  is  often  not  attempted  until  after  the  third 
year.  When  it  is  taken  up,  there  is  usually  one  form 
used  for  all  cases,  and  probably  this  first  form  will  not 
be  I,  but  more  often  me.  For  example,  Me  hurt  baby, 
meaning  I  hurt  myself.  Other  expressions,  such  as  Me 
cold,  Me  tired,  are  familiar  to  all  mothers. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  85 

Irregular  Forms.  When  the  inflected  forms  are  needed, 
the  regular  ones  are  chosen,  but  the  irregular  ones  come 
only  by  experience  and  practice.  The  following  examples 
illustrate  this  tendency :  /  see  some  mans.  My  foots  are 
cold.  I  oughted  to  have  gone.  I  dag  in  the  sand.  It 
is  noticeably  easier  for  the  child  to  use  the  past  tense  of 
the  verb  than  to  acquire  the  future  tense.  This  is  doubt- 
less due  to  the  psychological  fact  that  it  is  more  difficult 
for  the  child  to  apprehend  future  time  than  either  past  or 
present  time. 

The  question  as  to  how  the  child  does  eventually  come 
into  recognition  of  either  future  or  past  time  involves 
some  exceedingly  delicate  psychological  theories.  I  won- 
der if  all  mothers  have  noticed  the  puzzled  look  which 
comes  over  the  little  face  when  either  of  these  ideas  first 
presents  itself  to  him.  The  phases  of  consciousness  which 
are  passed  through  before  the  matter  is  satisfactorily 
adjusted  are  surely  too  subtle  to  be  followed  by  the  most 
discerning  observer. 

It  is  probably  true  that  from  the  child's  first  conscious- 
ness the  struggle  to  interpret  the  meaning  of  past  impres- 
sions by  the  aid  of  memory  helps  to  give  him  his  notion  of 
the  past  time,  while  his  experience  of  having  to  wait  for 
desired  objects  or  results  help  him  along  in  his  grasp  of 
the  idea  of  future  time. 

Later  Forms.  Other  forms  or  expressions  which  are 
slow  in  coming  to  the  child  are  the  possessive  case,  the 
comparative  degree,  the  relative  pronoun,  the  use  of  the 
negative,  and  the  proper  uses  of  may  and  can.  In  noting 
these  forms  of  the  language  which  are  the  most  difficult, 
and  hence  the  last  to  be  acquired,  it  is  entirely  significant 


86  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

that  they  lie  along  the  line  of  the  lingual  lapses  of  unedu- 
cated or  careless  adults. 

The  meaning  of  abstract  words  is  acquired  slowly. 
Probably  the  majority  of  children  do  not  attempt  the  use 
of  such  words  until  the  seventh  or  eighth  year,  and  their 
first  use  is  likely  to  be  associated  with  visual  imagery. 

An  illustration  of  this  connection  of  visual  imagery 
with  so-called  abstract  words  came  to  me  very  recently. 
I  asked  a  bright  little  girl  of  nine  years  the  meaning  of 
certain  abstract  nouns.  The  first  one  was  pride.  Her 
answer  was,  "He  thinks  he  is  very  smart."  The  next 
word  was  right.  "Things  are  done  the  way  they  ought 
to  be."  Beauty.  "It  is  awfully  pretty."  "What  is 
pretty?"  I  asked.  "Why,  my  hair  ribbon,"  was  the 
answer.  Sweetness.  "The  flower  smells  so  sweet." 
There  was  probably  some  particular  object  in  the  child's 
mind  with  each  word  as  in  the  case  of  the  hair  ribbon. 

There  is  much  help  here  for  both  parent  and  teacher 
touching  the  question  of  what  kind  of  appeal  to  make  to 
a  child.  During  this  period  of  immaturity,  enthusiasm 
for  any  desired  quality  will  be  more  quickly  gained  by 
reference  to  a  particular  person,  known  and  admired  by 
the  child,  who  exhibits  this  quality  in  a  marked  degree, 
than  any  amount  of  appeal  to  the  abstract  quality  by 
itself. 

SUMMARY 

Before  leaving  this  subject,  a  brief  summary  of  the 
linguistic  steps  will  be  interesting. 

i.  The  primordial  squall.  This  lasts  about  two  weeks 
and  expresses  discomfort. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  87 

\ 

2.  The  modified  primordial  squall.     This  interesting 

activity  is  differentiated  into  sounds  expressing  pain, 
hunger,  pleading,  anger,  etc.  It  continues  anywhere  from 
the  second  to  the  twelfth  week. 

3.  The  primordial  babble.     This  is  the  sound  which 
is  used  to  express  pleasure,  and  is  a  variation  of  one  of 
the  sounds  of  the  letter  a,  soon  followed  by  prefixing  the 
consonants  b,  p,  and  m.     These  sounds  are  purposeful 
and  include  the  baby's  first  real  smile.    They  prevail  from 
the  third  to  the  sixth  month. 

4.  Motor  imitation  and  word  formation.    This  is  pur- 
poseful and  is  supplemented  by  gesture  and  intonation. 
It  begins  about  the  eighth  month. 

5.  Effort  at  conventional  symbols.    At  one  year  there 
will  probably  be  more  than  twenty-five  in  use,  and  for 
part  of  these  the  parent  must  supply  the  meaning. 

6.  Irregular  voice  play.    Linguistic  invention. 

7.  Sentence-word  with  gestures.     Largely  imitation. 

8.  One  or  two  other  words  added  to  sentence,  which 
may  be  subject,  modifier,  or  verb.     All  lack  supplied  by 
gesture  and  grimace. 

9.  The  personal  pronoun.      Me  usually  precedes  /. 
This  is  about  the  third  year. 

10.  Inflected    forms.     Future    tenses    and    irregular 
forms  are  retarded. 

11.  Possessive   case.      Comparative.      Relative   pro- 
noun.    Negative  properly  used.     May  and  can. 

12.  Abstract  terms,  accompanied  by  incomplete  and 
visual  imagery,  from  seventh  to  tenth  year. 

There  is  a  large  individual  difference  in  the  age  at 
which  children  begin  to  talk,  but  the  very  early  talker 


88  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

cannot  be  said  to  develop  into  a  brighter  child  than  the 
one  who  acquires  the  use  of  language  more  slowly. 

How  to  Help.     The  question  as  to  what  the  mother 
may  do  when  her  child  does  not  advance  normally  in  the 
use  of  language  is  one  which  has  come  to  me  many  times. 
While  it  is  probably. true,  as  was  said  above,  that  retarded 
language  indicates  retarded  mental  processes,  these  mental 
processes  may  not  be  retarded  permanently.     The  child 
who,  up  to  the  fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth  year,  has  not  learned 
to  express  himself  clearly,  will  probably  never  become  a 
fluent  talker,  but  he  may  develop  into  a  clear,  though 
probably  slow,  thinker.     Considering  what  an  important 
asset  the  ready  use  of  language  becomes  in  adult  life,  it 
is  worth  while  for  the  mother  to  make  an  effort  in  the 
direction  of  assisting  the  development  of  the  language 
and  with  it  the  ideas.    If,  as  time  goes  on,  the  child  makes 
marked  mistakes  in  the  pronunciation  of  words  the  mean- 
ing of  which  he  evidently  knows,  it  may  be  possible  that 
there  is  some  defect  either  in  articulation  or  hearing.    The 
habit  of  mispronunciation,  however,  is  often  the  result  of 
mental  carelessness  on  the  part  of  both  the  child  and  the 
parent.    Whatever  its  cause,  it  will  be  more  easy  to  cor- 
rect if  taken  before  it  becomes  firmly  established.    Warner 
says,  "All  children  need  cultivation  of  good  speech  and 
pronunciation." 

On  an  earlier  page  reference  was  made  to  the  undesira- 
bility  of  stimulating  the  child's  mental  processes.  But 
I  think  that  in  the  case  of  a  child  who  is  retarded  in  his 
mastery  of  language,  it  will  be  agreed  by  everyone  that 
any  danger  which  might  come  from  an  attempt  to  stimu- 
late him  mentally  will  be  negligible.  When  the  child 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS         89 

seems  slow  in  getting  control  of  language  it  will  be  well 
for  the  mother  to  talk  to  him  a  good  deal  about  things 
which  are  within  his  range  of  thought.  Read  to  him 
from  books  which  seem  nearest  his  interests.  Try  to 
stimulate  his  ideas  by  introducing  things  which  will  be 
associated  with  pleasure.  This  will  be  slow  work,  and 
there  may  be  months  before  there  will  be  any  tangible 
results.  But  by  thus  enlarging  the  child's  interest  and 
increasing  the  number  of  his  ideas,  you  will  surely  do 
much  toward  better  mental  adjustment.  The  enlarge- 
ment of  his  power  of  language  will  be  a  result  and  proof 
of  the  success  of  your  efforts. 

Pointing.  Do  not  allow  the  child  to  point  to  the  things 
which  he  wants  instead  of  asking  for  them.  Pointing  as 
a  substitute  for  speaking  inclines  to  mental  laziness  and 
operates  against  the  acquisition  of  language. 

It  has  already  been  said  that  one  fundamental  cause 
for  learning  to  talk  is  the  fact  that  language  is  impera- 
tive in  securing  the  necessities  of  life.  The  mother  should 
merely  let  this  law  have  its  perfect  work  by  not  respond- 
ing to  requests  unless  they  are  made  in  words  and  enun- 
ciated distinctly.  Clearness  of  expression  as  well  as  a 
liberal  vocabulary  aids  clearness  of  ideas. 

Baby  Talk.  It  is  well  to  avoid  baby  talk  for  the  rea- 
sons that  have  just  been  mentioned.  Also  the;  reaction 
of  mixed  enunciation  upon  the  child's  clearness  of  ideas 
will  tend  to  confusion  in  mental  processes.  We  owe  it 
to  our  children  to  pronounce  our  words  distinctly  and 
correctly.  A  dear  little  girl  of  six  has  just  been  visiting 
me.  "I  must  dough  home,"  she  remarked.  She  blushed 
and  hung  her  head  when  I  asked  her  if  she  could  not  say 


90  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

go.  She  had  been  allowed  to  use  baby  talk  beyond  all 
reasonable  limits  (if  there  are  any  reasonable  limits)  and 
as  a  result  will  be  very  fortunate  if  she  does  not  exhibit 
mental  sloppiness  in  her  early  school  life. 

5.    PLAY  AS  A  FACTOR  IN  MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT 

Having  dwelt  somewhat  at  length  upon  the  interesting 
subject  of  how  the  child  learns  to  talk,  we  pass  naturally 
to  another  subject  of  great  importance  to  both  mother 
and  child.  I  refer  to  the  child's  instinct  for  play.1  This 
instinct  is  a  very  fundamental  one,  and  in  any  discussion 
of  children  it  must  always  find  a  prominent  place.  The 
healthy  child  begins  to  play  about  as  soon  as  he  knows 
himself,  and  perhaps  even  earlier.  We  cannot  speak  with 
authority  upon  this  point,  since  no  one  knows  when  the 
child  does  know  himself.  In  some  senses  perhaps  he  never 
does.  The  mother's  manifest  duty  is,  so  far  as  possible, 
to  allow  the  play  to  be  natural  by  not  interfering  with  it. 
The  child  in  his  natural  play  imitates  what  he  sees  about 
him.  There  will  be  building,  planting,  cooking,  parties, 
schools,  clubs,  dolls,  buying  and  selling,  and  any  number 
of  other  things.  The  motions  which  are  required  to  go 
through  with  all  of  these  things  are  simply  legion.  "A 
normal  child  is  necessarily  active  in  a  muscular  way,  and 
much  of  his  activity  is  not  in  accord  with  the  demands  of 
his  environment."2 

6.    WHY  A  CHILD  PLAYS 

Dr.  Judd,  in  speaking  of  the  number  of  unnecessary 
motions  which  a  child  makes  before  he  finally  finds  his 

1 W.  B.  Forbush,  The  Boy  Problem,  p.  g ;  Amy  Tanner,  The  Child, 
p.  29. 
2  M.  V.  O'Shea,  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,  Chap.  I. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  91 

place  in  the  universe,  says  that  this  possibility  or  rather 
necessity  for  diffusion  of  effort  is  nature's  way  of  giving 
scope  and  opportunity  for  individual  development.1  These 
diffuse  and  seemingly  superfluous  movements  on  the  part 
of  the  child  come  about  because  of  the  presence  in  the 
brain  of  the  unharmonized  and  uncombined  nerve  proc- 
esses which  were  spoken  of  in  the  last  chapter.  When 
there  is  complete  harmony  and  combination  between  the 
nerve  centers  of  the  brain,  no  motions  will  be  made  which 
are  not  directed  by  the  brain.  It  follows,  then  that  all 
motions  will  have  a  purpose,  and  no  motions  will  be  made 
without  a  purpose.  These  unnecessary  movements  are 
what  differentiate  the  child  from  the  lower  animals.  The 
brain  centers  of  a  chicken  are  practically  combined  and 
adjusted  as  soon  as  it  leaves  its  shell  and  it  makes  no 
unnecessary  movements  in  picking  up  its  food.  All  possi- 
bility of  further  individual  development  is  ended.  The 
child,  through  his  life  experiences,  through  his  needs,  his 
desires  and  his  ambitions,  by  repeated  trial  and  failure, 
comes  in  time  to  effect  the  harmony  of  the  originally  un- 
harmonized activities  and  by  so  doing  makes  himself  a 
different  being  from  any  other  member  of  the  race.  It  is 
this  very  possession  of  unlinked  forces  which  makes  it 
possible  for  a  child  to  be  educated.  In  fact,  education  has 
been  defined  as  "the  transition  of  the  immature  individual 
from  a  state  of  diffuseness  to  a  state  of  coordination  or 
organization."2 

Nervous  Response.    Anojther  phase  of  the  tendency  of 
the  child  to  constant  movement  is  the  fact  that  it  is  in  the 

1  Dr.  C.  H.  Judd,  Class  Lectures,  Feb.,  1910. 

2  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Youth,  p.  17. 


92  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

nature  of  the  nervous  organism  to  respond  to  all  forms 
of  sensation.  As  an  example  of  this  you  will  notice  that 
you  yourself  will  turn  your  head  on  hearing  an  unusual 
sound.  The  sight  of  an  object  inspires  a  desire  to  reach 
for  it.  As  an  adult  you  have  trained  yourself  not  to  reach 
for  things,  but  the  child  will  follow  his  instinct  and  try  to 
get  hold  of  all  he  sees.  The  basis  of  his  tendency  is  the 
inherent  human  instinct  to  add  to  one's  experience  in  all 
available  ways.  While,  later  on,  the  development  of  the 
judgment  suggests  proper  and  improper  ways  of  adding 
to  the  experience,  nature  sees  to  it  that  the  little  fellow 
records  some  experiences  of  permanent  usefulness  before 
conventionality,  laden  with  her  burden  of  "consideration 
for  the  rights  of  others,"  swoops  down  upon  him  with 
resistless  force.  I  believe  there  is  no  mother  who  has  not 
wondered  and  possibly  grieved  because  her  child  seemed 
so  much  more  adept  in  scattering  his  playthings  and  break- 
ing and  pulling  to  pieces  his  belongings,  and  those  of  other 
people  than  he  was  in  picking  them  up  and  putting  them 
together.  In  other  words,  why  does  the  small  girl  lose 
interest  in  her  doll  as  soon  as  she  has  succeeded  in  getting 
its  clothes  off  ?  Why  does  the  boy  lose  interest  in  his  en- 
gine when  he  has  taken  it  all  to  pieces  ?  Scattering  is  dif- 
fusion :  restoring  is  coordination.  We  have  tried  to  show 
that  diffusion  must  come  first  in  order  to  make  possible 
individual  development,  and  harmony  and  adaptation  in 
the  brain. 

^Helps  to  Brain  Building.  To  be  sure,  there  may  be  a 
question  as  to  how  greatly  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  briefly 
indicated  here  will  help  the  weary  mother  over  some  of  the 
almost  impossible  days  when  the  child  seems  wound  up  to 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  93 

go  indefinitely  with  arms,  legs,  voice  or  anything  else  that 
will  make  motion  and  noise.  But  there  are  some  ways  by 
which  coordination  may  be  assisted  and  the  friction  les- 
sened. Things  which  demand  construction  will  be  likely 
to  attract  the  child's  attention,  if  the  construction  is  so- 
simple  as  to  make  but  little  demand  upon  his  ingenuity. 

It  is  good  to  place  thought-provoking  games  and  toys 
within  the  child's  reach,  where  he  will  come  upon  them 
himself.  If  he  finds  them  and  works  them  out  himself  he 
will  get  more  out  of  them  than  if  you  show  him  how  to 
handle  them.  He  may  reject  the  thought-provoking  plays 
for  those  which  require  no  mental  effort.  This  may  be 
because  his  mind  is  not  yet  sufficiently  developed  to  under- 
stand them.  In  a  general  way,  however,  the  kinds  of  plays 
which  a  child  selects  himself  tend  to  forecast  his  future 
tastes. 

Among  the  simplest  construction  toys  are  blocks.  Large 
ones,  such  as  will  stay  on  top  of  each  other  without  being 
accurately  placed,  should  come  first,  then  the  more  com- 
plicated sets,  leading  up  eventually,  as  the  mind  of  the 
child  expands,  to  the  complete  architectural  puzzles  which 
toy  markets  offer.  Cut-up  pictures  and  maps;  drawing, 
painting  and  weaving,  are  all  constructive  plays.  Out  of 
door  plays  include  the  sand-pile,  with  the  sand  wet  enough 
to  allow  of  the  construction  of  houses,  fences  and  parks. 
If  you  live  near  a  stream  of  running  water  small  enough 
to  permit  of  the  child's  building  a  dam  in  it,  or  a  bridge 
across  it,  such  a  procedure  will  be  most  beneficial  for  his 
own  brain  construction.  Electrical  toys  and  steam-en- 
gines ;  batteries  with  appliances  to  be  attached  with  bands, 
are  mind  builders  for  older  boys.  Tools  can  be  added  as 


94 


STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 


soon  as  the  child  develops  the  sense  to  use  them  safely.  In 
addition  to  the  above  occupations,  some  of  which  appeal 
to  both  boys  and  girls,  there  are  some  plays  which  seem 
to  appeal  more  strictly  to  the  feminine  mind.  For  exam- 
ple, at  a  certain  age,  playing  with  dolls,  planning  for  their 
supposed  amusement  and  necessary  costumes  develop  the 
mind  in  certain  directions.  Later  on,  such  games  as  au- 
thors, checkers,  and  chess  will  contribute  to  normal  devel- 
opment. 

Timeliness  in  Plays.  There  is  another  point  of  interest 
in  this  connection.  Educators  are  laying  emphasis  upon 
the  fact  that  all  powers  have  a  time  for  coming  to  perfec- 
tion. If  the  proper  conditions  are  not  provided  at  this 
time,  the  development  may  be  retarded.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  period  for  a  certain  kind  of  exercise  is 
past,  the  child  will  naturally  turn  to  something  else  which 
is  needed  for  his  development.  Thus  it  is  unwise  to  en- 
courage a  child  to  continue  in  childish  plays  after  the  time 
when  he  follows  them  spontaneously.  If  kept  engaged  in 
them  too  long  there  is  a  possibility  that  he  may  settle  down 
to  the  level  of  the  plays,  instead  of  moving  on  to  some- 
thing more  complex.  Most  mothers  dread  to  see  their 
little  girls  lay  aside  their  dolls  and  are  often  tempted  to 
urge  the  continuation  of  the  "little  mother"  attitude.  But 
there  may  be  an  unsuspected  danger  in  doing  so. 

The  little  girl  must  experience  very  important  mental 
development  before  she  enters  the  estate  of  the  real 
mother.  If  she  lingers  too  long  on  the  "play  mother" 
plane,  she  may  never  reach  her  highest  capabilities.  So 
when  your  daughter  drops  her  doll,  and  has  evidently  for- 
gotten it,  simply  pick  it  up  and  put  it  away.  It  will  be 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  95 

only  human  to  drop  a  tear  upon  its  battered  face  and  well 
worn  clothing.  But  the  face  of  the  little  girl  is  toward 
the  future.  The  wise  mother  will  go  before  her,  not  lag 
behind. 

Companionship.  The  average  child  craves  companion- 
ship in  play.  This  craving  is  the  incipient  social  instinct, 
one  of  nature's  laws  for  the  betterment  of  the  race.  In 
early  childhood  bad  companionship  is  not  to  be  feared.  A 
child  under  seven  years,  although  he  may  be  extremely 
naughty,  is  not  bad.  Moreover,  if  there  are  children  in 
your  neighborhood  who,  you  think,  will  not  influence  your 
children  for  good,  it  may  be  you  have  a  duty  toward  them. 
The  expression,  "I  do  not  allow  my  child  to  go  to  other 
houses  to  play.  I  prefer  to  have  other  children  come  here 
and  play  with  him,"  is  both  selfish  and  absurd.  The  one- 
sided sociability  which  is  here  inculcated  will  work  harm 
somewhere.  It  is  taken  for  granted  that  you  know  the 
mothers  of  your  children's  companions  and  that  you  visit 
in  all  homes  where  your  children  visit.  Under  these  condi- 
tions and  with  due  regard  for  times  and  seasons,  a  rather 
free  exchange  of  sociability  will  tend  to  the  normal  devel- 
opment of  all  children  concerned. 

The  Mother  as  Play  Fellow.  There  is  a  word  to  be  said 
about  the  extent  to  which  the  mother  should  become  the 
companion  and  play  fellow  of  her  young  child.  Froebel 
said,  "Come,  let  us  live  with  our  children."  But  there  is 
a  danger  here  which  is  not  always  apprehended.  If  the 
mother  adapts  herself  mentally  to  her  young  child  for  any 
length  of  time,  especially  if  she  is  somewhat  shut  off  from 
the  companionship  of  adults,  as  mothers  are  likely  to  be  at 
this  time,  her  mind  may  not  react  directly  or  completely 


96  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

to  her  own  adult  ideals  and  ways  of  thinking.  The 
healthy,  growing  child  may  outstrip  the  mother.  This 
state  of  things  is  to  be  deplored.  It  is  pathetic  to  go  into 
a  home  where,  as  between  mother  and  child,  the  child  is 
the  master  mind.  The  deliberate  adaptation  of  the  adult 
mind  of  the  mother  to  an  undeveloped  form  of  mind  has 
no  connection  with  the  almost  inevitable  period  of  mental 
inactivity  accompanying  childbirth,  from  which  the  intel- 
ligent mother  emerges  with  a  mental  rebound.  Again,  if 
the  mother  becomes  the  constant  play  fellow  of  her  child 
she  is  almost  sure  to  interpolate  her  own  ideas  about  how- 
things  should  be  done.  This  will  detract  from  the  spon- 
taneity and  independence  of  the  child. 

But  let  there  be,  by  all  means,  a  daily  romp  with  the 
child,  by  the  father  or  mother  or  both.  The  daily  romp  is 
a  grand  thing  physically  and  mentally  for  all  concerned 
in  it.  Forbush  declares  truly  that  parents  do  not  have 
enough  fun  with  their  children. 

Quarreling.  Whenever  children  of  strong  wills  and  dif- 
ferent tastes  play  together,  there  will  be  frequent  quarrels. 
The  child  is  a  young  animal  and  a  natural  despot.  The 
instinct  for  quarreling  does  not  spring  from  malice,  but 
it  is  like  the  appetite  for  food,  a  sort  of  undefined  craving. 
Much  ordinary  quarreling  of  children,  disagreeable  as  it  is 
for  the  parents,  is  physically  healthy  for  the  children.  It 
is  stimulating  for  both  body  and  mind.  So,  while  we  agree 
with  the  old  song, 

"Your  little  hands  were  never  made 
To  scratch  each  other's  eyes." 

we  still  recognize  the  fact  that  in  a  family  of  energetic 
children  there  will  be  lively  tilts,  and  many  of  them. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  97 

The  quarreling  of  two  children  indicates  strength  of 
character.  When  two  children  of  the  same  age,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  same  sex,  are  together  most  of  the  time  and 
do  not  quarrel,  the  probability  is  that  one  of  them  is  the 
master.  How  much  of  this  kind  of  companionship  is  the 
best  thing  for  either  party  is  a  subject  to  which  the  mother 
should  give  her  thoughtful  attention. 

Do  not  understand  me  to  suggest  that  quarreling  should 
be  encouraged  by  the  parents.  It  is  an  animal  character- 
istic and  should  and  will  be  left  behind  as  soon  as  self- 
control  develops,  and  the  manly  and  womanly  qualities 
assume  their  proper  place  in  the  character  of  the  individ- 
ual. Be  sure  that  you  are  doing  all  in  your  power  to  keep 
the  home  harmonious,  but  do  not  be  unhappy  over  the 
petty  conflicts. 

One  Method.  One  successful  method  of  dealing  with 
two  children  who  insisted  upon  quarreling  was  to  make 
a  good-natured  agreement  with  them  that  when  they  quar- 
reled, since  they  thus  infringed  upon  the  peace  and  har- 
mony of  the  household,  they  should  be  considered  in  the 
light  of  public  offenders.  The  parent,  in  the  capacity  of 
an  officer,  should,  upon  each  offense,  place  them  under 
arrest,  and  fine  them  to  the  extent  of  five  cents  each,  which 
sum  should  Be  paid  from  their  own  pocket  money.  It 
required  but  a  few  days  of  strict  adherence  to  this  plan 
to  arouse  the  inhibitive  powers  in  both  of  the  children  and 
the  quarreling  ceased.1 

7.    INSTINCTS. 

We  now  pass  to  the  consideration  of  certain  manifesta- 
tions of  the  child  mind,  which  may  perhaps  be  properly 

1  Professor  J.  H.  Tufts,  Class  Lectures,  Feb.,  1910. 


98  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

classed  as  instincts.  Some  of  these  instincts  result  in 
forms  of  conduct  with  which  the  mother  finds  it  difficult 
to  deal. 

Fear.  The  first  to  be  taken  up  will  be  fear.  Kirkpat- 
rick  classifies  fear  as  one  of  the  most  fundamental  of  the 
instincts.1  It  is  the  animal  instinct  of  self-preservation, 
and  still  persists  with  little  or  no  cause  in  both  children 
and  adults.  The  period  of  greatest  fear  is  about  the  third 
or  fourth  year  of  age.  Sounds  more  often  than  sights 
occasion  fear.  The  starting  at  sounds  and  the  evident 
fear  of  falling  seen  in  the  child  of  a  few  weeks  is  probably 
largely  reflex  and  never  rises  into  the  sphere  of  conscious- 
ness. Under  proper  treatment,  fear  will  be  largely  over- 
come as  the  child  goes  on  in  years.  Fear,  in  the  sense 
used  here,  is  declared  to  be  "injurious  physically,  stupefy- 
ing mentally,  and  degenerative  morally.  It  makes  one's 
life  miserable,  weak  and  unworthy.  Every  effort  should 
be  made  to  eradicate  it." 

One  difficulty  in  dealing  with  fear  is  its  intangibility. 
The  word  may  apply  to  emotions  varying  from  a  slight 
timidity  or  instinctive  dread  to  an  actual  terror  caused 
by  some  real  experience  of  physical  or  mental  pain.  -There 
is  little  doubt  that  the  presence  of  fear  in  the  mind  of  the 
child  is  affected  by  prenatal  influences,  £id  the  mother 
must  take  these  influences  into  account  in  dealing  with  the 
child.  While  each  child  must  ultimately  be  dealt  with  as 
a  separate  case,  there  are  a  few  general  rules  which  will 
apply  for  all. 

Some  General  Rules.  Assume  by  your  bearing  that  your 
child  has  no  fear.  I  do  not  mean  by  this  to  ignore  the  pos- 

1 E.  A.  Kirkpatrick,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  pp.  99,  100,  103. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  99 

sibility  of  fear,  or  to  say  there  is  nothing  in  the  world  for 
the  child  to  be  afraid  of.  But  I  do  mean  to  say  that  there 
is  a  great  deal  more  fear  in  the  world  than  is  necessary. 
It  is  the  duty  and  privilege  of  the  wise  mother,  by  begin- 
ning in  the  right  way  and  at  the  right  time,  to  reduce  this 
fear  to  the  minimum.  Assume  that  your  child  has  no 
fear  and,  so  far  as  possible,  act  upon  that  basis. 

Never  ask  your  child  if  he  is  afraid.  If  it  is  necessary 
for  you  to  send  him  into  a  dark  room  to  bring  you  some- 
thing, do  not  let  the  thought  of  fear  enter  your  mind  or 
his.  You  know  there  is  nothing  that  will  hurt  him  and 
you  should  take  it  for  granted  that  he  also  knows  it.  You 
may  safely  follow  the  same  rule  if  you  wish  him  to  go  to 
the  neighbor's  after  dark,  provided  that  you  yourself  are 
satisfied  it  is  safe  for  him  to  go.  I  speak  of  these  in- 
stances because  darkness  has  always  been  the  prime  in- 
spirer  of  dread  in  children.  The  fear  of  the  dark  is  the 
instinctive  fear  of  the  unknown.  But  it  can  be  controlled 
by  the  reason  in  due  time,  if  the  child's  nerves  are  in  a 
normal  condition. 

Never  exhibit  fear  yourself  in  the  presence  of  the  child. 
This  may  be  a  difficult  feat  for  some  mothers,  but  if  any- 
thing can  make  a  timid  mother  brave  it  is  the  knowledge 
that  her  action  will  make  a  life-long  impression  upon  the 
child.  The  appearance  of  storm  clouds  in  the  sky,  a  sud- 
den rap  at  the  door,  a  noise  in  the  cellar,  the  fire  alarm,  a 
telegram,  will  often  cause  the  mother  to  lose  her  self- 
control  in  the  presence  of  the  child.  The  life  of  a  mother 
with  a  family  of  little  children  is  almost  sure  to  be  con- 
fined within  narrow  limits,  and,  as  has  already  been  sug- 
gested, there  is  a  natural  tendency  to  adapt  herself  to  her 


100  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

child's  range  of  thought  in  certain  ways.  As  a  result  of 
these  things  her  normal  power  of  reaction  in  the  case  of 
emergencies  may  become  weakened.  But  she  should  con- 
trol her  feelings  at  any  cost,  and  not  allow  those  keen  little 
eyes,  which  seem  to  see  right  through  her,  to  discern  any- 
thing but  calmness  and  equanimity.  If  the  incipient  fears 
oi  the  child  are  thus  reduced,  and  he  is  not  allowed  to  be 
frightened  in  any  artificial  way,  much  unnecessary  dis- 
comfort, not  to  speak  of  actual  suffering,  will  be  avoided. 

Illustration.  An  actual  illustration  bearing  upon  this 
point  is  at  hand.  A  group  of  mothers  were  gathered  at 
the  home  of  a  friend  for  a  social  evening.  The* son  of  the 
family,  twelve  years  of  age,  happened  to  be  present.  The 
conversation  drifted  to  the  subject  of  fear.  The  following 
were  some  of  the  sentiments  expressed  by  different  mem- 
bers of  the  company:  "No,  indeed,  I  would  not  go  out  to 
lock  the  back  door  after  nine  o'clock  at  night.  I  am  afraid 
to.  I  always  make  my  husband  do  it."  Another  declared, 
"I  wouldn't  stay  alone  in  the  house  for  anything."  Still 
another,  "Neither  would  I.  You  could  not  hire  me  to." 
Another,  "Of  course,  I  am  not  going  home  alone.  I  am 
as  afraid  as  death  to  be  out  after  dark." 

After  the  child  had  retired,  the  mother  said,  "I  am  sorry 
my  boy  heard  you  talking  of  being  afraid.  So  far  as  I 
know  this  is  the  first  time  he  has  heard  expressions  of  per- 
sonal fear  on  the  part  of  adults."  "Hasn't  he  ever  been 
afraid?"  asked  one.  "Several  years  ago,"  the  mother  an- 
swered, "we  found  that  he  seemed  to  have  a  fear  of  dark- 
ness. Since  then  we  have  been  doing  everything  within 
our  power  to  eliminate  that  tendency,  and  we  seemed  to 
have  been  successful,  but  I  do  not  know  what  effect  your 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  Y&ARS        ioi 

conversation  will  have  upon  him."  The  mother  certainly 
had  reasonable  grounds  for  her  anxiety.  Timidity  in  the 
mother  fastens  itself  upon  the  mind  of  the  child  at  the 
time  when  she  represents  to  him  so  much  of  the  outside 
world.  Even  after  the  child  comes  to  the  age  when  he 
sees  the  unreasonableness  of  this  fear  it  clings  to  him  with 
marked  tenacity. 

Two  Phases.  But  there  are  still  two  phases  of  the  sub- 
ject to  be  considered.  The  first  one  has  reference  to  the 
child  who,  after  all  of  these  things  have  been  tried,  still 
remains  an  arrant  little  coward.  When  this  happens,  in- 
sist that  he  tell  you  definitely  what  he  is  afraid  of.  Often 
the  object  of  his  fear  is  imaginary,  and  when  brought  out 
into  the  daylight  will  disappear.  For  example,  the  child 
hears  the  water  dripping  in  the  bathroom  and  thinks  it  is 
a  person  trying  to  get  into  the  house.  He  hears  a  tree 
branch  sweeping  against  the  house  and  thinks  it  is  a  bear. 
Take  the  child  in  where  he  can  see  and  hear  the  water 
dripping  at  the  same  time.  Show  him  the  tree  in  the  day- 
light. One  mother  quieted  her  child's  incipient  dread  of 
"bears"  by  telling  her  that  if  there  was  a  bear  prowling 
about  the  house  or  neighborhood,  it  must  be  a  tame  one, 
which  had  escaped  from  a  show,  as  the  wild  ones  had  been 
driven  away  long  ago.  Of  course,  the  owner  would  be 
looking  for  it  and  would  pay  a  large  sum  of  money  to  any- 
one who  would  catch  it  for  him.  "We  will  watch  and  see 
if  we  can't  get  it  to  come  into  our  shed  and  keep  it  for 
the  owner.  Then  the  owner  will  like  us,  besides  giving  us 
the  money/'  The  fear  of  dogs  which  possesses  many  chil- 
dren can  often  be  alleviated  by  bringing  a  friendly  dog 
close  to  the  fearful  one  and  putting  one's  own  hand  or  the 


102  '  'STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

hand  of  the  child  into  the  dog's  mouth.  It  is  often  wise 
for  parents  to  buy  a  dog  in  order  to  overcome  this  sort  of 
fear. 

Sometimes,  of  course,  the  object  of  the  child's  fear  is 
a  really  dangerous  thing,  such  as  a  street  car  track  to  be 
crossed,  speeding  automobiles  or  a  vicious  dog.  In  that 
case  you  will  have  made  a  great  gain  when  you  discover 
just  what  it  is.  If  you  cannot  explain  it  away,  you  can 
show,  perhaps,  how  to  avoid  it  and  thus  dispel  that  haunt- 
ing dread  which  surrounds  some  sensitive  children.  Occa- 
sionally a  child  can  be  ridiculed  out  of  his  fears,  but  the 
mother  should  go  slowly  along  this  line  and  watch  the 
effect.  Ridicule,  on  the  part  of  the  mother,  may  result  in 
cutting  off  confidential  relations  with  her  child.  A  basis 
of  mutual  confidence  is  the  safest  ground  upon  which  to 
proceed. 

The  other  case  is  at  the  opposite  extreme.  It  refers  to 
the  child  who  has  not  enough  of  the  element  of  fear,  or 
prudence,  in  his  disposition  to  make  him  ordinarily  cau- 
tious. What  shall  the  mother  do  then  ?  First  of  all,  re- 
joice. There  are  limitations  and  even  dangers  in  such  a 
disposition,  but  there  is  also  a  freedom  in  it  which  means 
much  for  the  future  of  the  child.  It  will  be  wise  to  ex- 
plain to  such  a  child  the  nature  of  any  real  danger  which 
cannot  be  romoved,  and  an  acceptance  of  the  conditions 
without  fear  is  generally  safer  than  to  be  always  trying  to 
avoid  them. 

Moral  Dangers.  It  may  also  be  said  that  these  physical 
dangers  bear  no  comparison  to  the  moral  dangers  which 
will  soon  be  found  lying  in  wait  for  your  children.  I  have 
in  mind  the  case  of  a  boy  for  whose  physical  welfare  his 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  103 

mother  was  frantically  solicitous.  If  he  went  swimming 
or  engaged  in  any  rough  sport  she  was  unhappy,  and  made 
all  her  friends  unhappy,  until  he  had  returned  to  her.  But 
perhaps  her  extreme  solicitation  for  his  physical  welfare 
rendered  her  moral  insight  less  keen.  Perhaps,  also,  this 
foolish,  over-carefulness  destroyed  her  influence  over  her 
boy.  At  all  events,  she  was  not  successful  in  guarding  him 
from  moral  dangers,  and  as  he  grew  older  he  fell  into 
gross  dissipation.  This  brings  me  to  say  what  has  seemed 
already  to  have  said  itself,  namely,  that  there  is  just  one 
kind  of  fear  we  want  to  see  in  our  children;  that  is,  the 
fear  of  wrong-doing,  of  sinking  to  a  low  level,  of  failure 
to  attain  the  highest  possible.  If  a  real  fear  of  moral 
dangers  has  once  secured  a  firm  grip  upon  the  child's 
mind  he  may  be  trusted  to  go  hunting  and  swimming 
without  dread  of  the  consequences. 

Other  Instincts.  The  remainder  of  this  group  of  in- 
stincts to  which  reference  has  been  made  seem  to  have 
little  in  common  except  that  their  indulgence  results  in 
bad  manners  and  a  general  lack  of  harmony  with  conven- 
tional environment.  They  are  curiosity,  ownership,  boast- 
fulness,  cruelty,  bad  language  and  fighting.  Under  recog- 
nized standards  of  polite  society  these  instincts  tend  to 
defeat  the  purpose  for  which  they  originally  came  into 
existence.  They  are,  in  their  primitive  form,  simply  the 
method  by  which  the  child  is  impelled  to  seek  the  control 
of  his  environment,  and  this  control  must  be  secured  by 
everyone  who  is  to  make  a  success  of  life. 

Curiosity.1  Normal  curiosity  expresses  intellectual  hun- 
ger. It  is  a  yielding  to  the  impulse  to  secure  and  test  new 

1  E.  A.  Kirkpatrick  "Fundamentals  of  Child  Study"  pp.  59,  166. 


104  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

sensations.  Reference  has  been  made  to  the  universal  in- 
stinct to  reach  for  what  one  sees.  Curiosity  adds  the 
mental  impulse  to  investigate  these  objects  of  sensation 
and  thereby  build  up  new  experiences.  The  instinct  of 
curiosity  proves  its  owner  to  be  alive.  Rightly  directed 
and  controlled  it  will  eventuate  in  happiness  and  growth. 
Curiosity  will  prove  a  detriment  only  if  it  is  allowed  to 
remain  upon  the  level  of  a  mere  animal  instinct.  Every 
effort  should  be  made  to  train  it  into  a  habit  of  painstak- 
ing search  for  new  truths  and  patient  investigation  of 
them.  These  efforts  can  be  made  in  countless  ways.  Al- 
ways answer  questions  truthfully  and  clearly.  If  the 
questions  are  foolish  ones,  explain  that  they  are  so,  and 
why.  If  they  are  good  questions,  commend  them.  Try 
to  keep  the  expression  of  curiosity  open  and  frank  and 
make  the  child  feel  that  you  are  the  most  satisfactory 
source  which  he  knows  of  for  all  information  which  he 
craves.  It  will  often  "put  you  about"  to  keep  up  with 
the  questions,  but  if  you  are  sincere  in  your  desire  to  help 
your  child  you  will  find  yourself  equal  to  the  situation. 

Ownership.  The  instinct  of  ownership  comes  next. 
When  successfully  directed,  it  gives  to  the  child  essential 
control  of  at  least  a  portion  of  his  surroundings.  With- 
out it  the  child  will  be  at  a  disadvantage  both  in  his  earlier 
and  in  his  later  life.  This  instinct  of  ownership  has  large 
possibilities  both  for  good  and  for  ill.  If  a  child  has  a 
strong  propensity  in  this  direction,  the  mother  should 
wisely  direct  it  so  that  his  future  may  not  be  imperiled. 
It  is  a  help  in  the  acquisition  of  such  desirable  traits  as 
industry,  orderliness,  proper  pride,  carefulness  and  pains- 
taking. But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  pitfall  of  sel- 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  105 

fishness,  and  the  more  dreaded  danger  just  at  hand  of  a 
weakened  sense  of  the  significance  of  "mine  and  thine." 
It  is  needless  to  emphasize  the  mother's  responsibility 
there. 

It  is  imperative  that  you  know  where  the  child  secures 
the  articles  which  he  has  in  his  possession.  His  perfectly 
laudable  desire  for  ownership  may  lead  him  to  take  arti- 
cles which  are  not  his.  This  always  comes  as  a  shock  to 
the  parent,  and  rightly  should  so  come  if  a  shock  is  neces- 
sary to  rouse  you  to  action.  Appeal  to  the  child's  sense 
of  justice  and  the  "put  yourself  in  his  place"  argument, 
"his  place"  being  the  place  of  the  person  from  whom  the 
article  has  been  taken.  Very  often  the  child  who  has  a 
large  bump  of  ownership  will  also  have  a  strong  sense  of 
justice.  If  milder  methods  fail  to  bring  the  child  to  a 
realizing  sense  of  the  situation,  severe  punishment  must  be 
resorted  to,  for  every  child  has  the  right  to  be  taught  to 
be  honest. 

Boastfulness.  Boastfulness  comes  next  in  order.  This 
is  not  a  pleasant  characteristic,  yet  it  has  as  its  basis  an 
entirely  proper  desire  for  social  recognition.  When  a 
child  indulges  in  boasting  it  is  fair  to  suppose  that  he  is 
carrying  in  his  mind  a  somewhat  highly  colored  picture 
of  his  own  personality  and  achievements.  The  mother 
may  meet  the  case  by  asking  for  an  exact  statement  of 
the  child's  achievements  and  helping  him  form  a  correct 
estimate  of  their  worth.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
discourage  a  child  or  minimize  the  importance  of  his 
efforts,  for  praise  is  a  strong  incentive.  He  should  sim- 
ply be  taught  to  leave  to  others  the  opportunity  of  praising 
him, 


106  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

Cruelty.  The  instinct  of  cruelty  shows  the  narrowness 
of  the  child's  mental  range.1  He  knows  little  of  the  sense 
of  pain  in  others  and  he  has  an  intense  love  of  activity 
and  excitement.  A  child  is  in  a  sense  the  master  of  that 
to  which  he  is  cruel.  The  possibility  of  cruelty,  wherever 
it  occurs,  involves  a  kind  of  mastery.  The  pleasure  gained 
by  the  child  comes  from  the  delight  in  mastery,  not  from 
the  delight  in  another's  pain.  It  is  the  mother's  task  to 
develop  a  recognition  of  the  pain  which  has  been  inflicted, 
and  to  implant  a  desire  in  the  child  to  become  master  of 
a  situation  in  which  happiness  rather  than  pain  and  suf- 
fering shall  be  the  ruling  element. 

A  practical  instance  of  a  cruel  child  came  under  my 
observation.  A  little  boy  of  five  seemed  to  take  delight 
in  hurting  every  living  thing  which  came  within  his  range. 
He  squeezed  the  cat,  kicked  the  dog,  and  pinched  and  bit 
his  little  sister.  The  family  discipline  was  lax  and  con- 
ventional, and  the  occasional  scolding  which  he  received 
served  in  no  way  to  abate  his  desire  to  inflict  pain.  I 
found  him  unusually  bright  and  intelligent  and  very  re- 
sourceful. He  did  not  hate  the  animals  which  he  tor- 
tured, and  he  dearly  loved  his  little  sister,  who  was  also 
very  devoted  to  him.  Probably  as  this  child  grows  older 
social  convention  and  popular  opinion  will  enforce  a  meas- 
ure of  self-control,  but  it  is  regrettable  that  this  tendency, 
in  reality  a  form  of  strength,  could  not  be  so  directed  as 
to  result  in  actual  strength. 

Does  child  study  suggest  any  help  in  such  a  case  ?  The 
mother  knows  the  child's  heredity  and  any  circumstances 

1  Irving  King,  Psychology  of  Child  Development,  p.  151 ;  G.  Stan- 
ley Hall,  Adolescence,  Vol.  2,  p.  359. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS 


107 


which  might  accentuate  or  modify  his  tendency  to  cruelty. 
She  should  make  the  strongest  possible  appeal  to  his  sense 
of  justice,  at  the  same  time  inflicting  such  bodily  pain 
upon  him  as  he  has  inflicted  upon  others.  But  she  should 
not  stop  there.  Let  her  appeal  to  his  desire  for  mastery, 
and  develop  his  resourcefulness,  by  showing  him  how  to 
teach  the  cat  and  dog  to  "do  things."  He  can  teach  the 
cat  to  come  at  his  call,  even  though  he  has  hidden  him- 
self. The  same  is  true  of  the  dog,  which  can  be  taught 
all  manner  of  tricks.  He  can  secure  loyal  devotion  from 
his  sister,  as  well  as  from  the  other  children  of  the  neigh- 
borhood, by  inventing  interesting  games  and  showing  them 
how  to  play  them.  Be  especially  watchful  that  the  child 
does  not  resort  to  cruelty  in  enforcing  his  plans,  as  he  will 
be  tempted  to  do.  Remember  that  this  is  not  the  correct- 
ing of  a  single  fault,  but  the  effort  to  change  an  inherent 
tendency  so  that,  instead  of  being  a  future  handicap,  it 
shall  be  a  help  in  attaining  a  splendid  character. 

Bad  Language.  Bad  language  appeals  to  the  child,  with 
his  limited  vocabulary,  as  a  forcible  way  of  expressing 
himself.1  He  has,  at  least  in  his  earlier  years,  no  ulterior 
associations  to  suggest  its  undesirability.  The  mandates 
of  his  parents  as  to  what  kind  of  language  it  is  proper  or 
improper  to  use  must  have  as  little  real  meaning  for  him 
as  did  the  conventional  symbols  by  means  of  which  he 
originally  strove  to  master  the  language  situation.  But 
in  both  cases  the  conventional  methods  must  be  enforced. 
Fortunately,  intellectual  and  moral  reinforcements  will 
soon  become  available  through  the  child's  developing  ob- 
servation and  moral  sense. 

1  Irving  King,  Psychology  of  Child  Development,  p.  146. 


108  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

Fighting.  The  last  instinct  to  be  mentioned,  namely, 
fighting,  is  considered  hardly  within  the  pale  of  respecta- 
bility. In  fact,  it  is  relegated  to  the  sphere  of  brute  char- 
acteristics. Curiously  enough,  it  may  be  regarded,  in  a 
way,  as  a  survival  of  one  of  nature's  means  of  developing 
self-control.1  A  study  of  those  primitive  social  conditions 
where  superiority  in  a  hand-to-hand  combat  meant  self- 
preservation  as  against  annihilation  show  that  one  could 
not  fight  as  well  when  angry  as  when  all  his  powers  were 
under  perfect  control.  Hence  the  survivor  was  the  one 
who,  other  things  being  equal,  best  controlled  himself.  In 
our  day  the  conditions  are  reversed,  and  one  fights,  not  to 
learn  to  keep  his  temper,  but  usually  because  he  has  al- 
ready lost  it.  Even  this  unsocial  instinct  may  be  made  to 
minister  to  the  highest  good  of  its  possessor,  if  the  parent 
but  understands  how  to  treat  it.  "If  you  crush  the  fight- 
ing instinct,  you  have  the  coward;  if  you  let  it  grow  wild, 
you  have  the  bully;  if  you  train  it,  you  have  the  strong, 
self -controlled  man  of  will."2  If  you  have  a  child  with 
a  tendency  to  fight,  make  it  your  business  to  see  what 
kind  of  children  he  fights.  Does  he  pick  on  boys  smaller 
than  himself  and  so  rouse  them  to  resistance,  or  does  he 
resist  by  showing  fight  when  larger  boys  try  to  impose  on 
him?  If  the  former  is  the  case,  there  may  be  some  help- 
ful suggestions  under  what  Child  Study  says  about  cru- 
elty. But  in  the  latter  case,  my  advice  is  that  you  let  the 
child  work  it  out  for  himself  if  possible. 

An  Example.  I  will  give  one  instance  where  this 
method  worked  out  for  the  best,  and  which  may  be  sug- 

1  E.  A.  Kirkpatrick,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  p.  105. 

2  W.  Forbush,  The  Boy  Problem,  p.  12, 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS 


109 


gestive  even  under  different  circumstances.  Two  boys  of 
about  the  same  age  lived  from  boyhood  in  adjacent  houses. 
They  were  warm  friends  and  constant  play  fellows.  When 
they  were  about  ten  years  of  age  one  of  them  was  larger 
and  stronger  than  the  other.  The  larger  one  liked  to  dom- 
ineer. The  smaller  one  resented  it,  and  frequent  fights 
ensued.  The  outcome  was  always  against  the  smaller  boy, 
who,  upon  being  vanquished,  repaired  to  his  mother  in 
muddy  tears  and  soiled  garments.  This  went  on  for  some 
time,  during  which  time  the  smaller  boy  gained  in  strength. 
One  day  the  mother  of  the  latter  child  discovered  the  two 
boys  fighting.  She  was  about  to  follow  the  natural  im- 
pulse and  separate  them,  when  she  noticed  the  smaller  boy 
was  holding  his  own.  So,  instead  of  offering  any  re- 
straint, she  called  out  words  of  encouragement  to  her  son, 
who  in  a  few  minutes  had  his  opponent  down  and 
" whipped."  That  was  the  last  fight  the  boys  ever  had, 
although  they  were  play  fellows  and  friends  for  a  score 
or  more  of  years  after. 

8.    SCHOOL  LIFE 

We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  a  phase  of  the 
child's  life  that  may  come  near  the  close  of  the  period 
which  we  are  studying.  He  begins  to  go  to  school.  This 
very  important  experience  comes  to  the  majority  of  Amer- 
ican children  before  the  age  of  seven.  When  the  child  is 
sent  to  kindergarten  it  comes  earlier  still.  The  real  sig- 
nificance of  entering  school  is  not  appreciated  by  the  child 
himself.  Perhaps  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  mothers 
appreciate  it.  When  a  child,  in  addition  to  being  a  mem- 
ber of  the  family,  has  become  a  member  of  the  school,  his 


1 10  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

relation  to  society  has  changed.  Little  by  little  he  comes 
to  show  the  effects  of  this  change  in  his  bearing.  His 
mental  habits  are  undergoing  transformation. 

The  Mother's  Relation  to  the  School.  How  soon  a  child 
shall  be  sent  to  school  after  having  reached  the  minimum 
age  required  by  the  laws  of  the  state  in  which  he  lives 
depends  very  much  upon  circumstances.  If  the  school 
conditions  are  good  as  regards  sanitation,  lighting  and 
heating;  if  the  character  and  equipment  of  the  teacher  are 
satisfactory,  and  if  your  child  corresponds  in  age  and  de- 
velopment with  most  of  the  other  children  in  the  class,  it 
is  probable  that  he  will  develop  normally  if  he  is  put  into 
school  at  the  accepted  school  age.  It  ought  to  go  without 
saying  that  every  mother  should  know  her  child's  teacher. 
But,  unfortunately,  it  does  not  even  go  with  saying.  I 
believe  there  is  a  wider  interest  in  this  direction  at  the  pres- 
ent time  than  ever  before,  but  there  is  still  room  for  im- 
provement, not  only  in  the  number  of  mothers  who  take 
an  interest  in  the  schools,  but  in  the  way  in  which  they 
manifest  their  interest.  In  other  words,  there  should  be 
not  only  a  quantitative  but  a  qualitative  improvement  in 
the  matter. 

Effect  of  School  Life.  It  is,  of  course,  the  mother's 
duty  to  watch  carefully  the  effect  of  school  life  upon  the 
child  in  these  first  school  days.  It  may  be  that  the  food 
and  clothing  which  sufficed  at  home  will  not  be  adequate 
for  the  demands  of  the  new  conditions.  It  will  be  wise, 
also,  to  follow  sympathetically  the  effect  of  the  formal 
discipline  of  the  school  upon  the  child's  mind.  Even  after 
the  child  is  well  started,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  visit  the  school 
as  often  as  possible,  not  to  criticise,  but  to  commune.  It 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS        m 

may  seem  a  strange  condition,  but  I  think  it  is  true,  that 
when  the  mother  sees  her  child  in  the  schoolroom  she 
learns  many  things  about  him  which  were  unknown  to  her 
before.  He  appears  in  a  new  light,  as  a  member  of  a 
broader  society.  This  subject  of  school-life  will  be  dis- 
cussed more  fully  in  a  later  chapter. 

Reading  and  Writing.  When  the  child  starts  upon  his 
school  life  he  will  be  set  about  learning  to  read  and  to 
write.  It  is  a  very  open  question  as  to  how  much  reading 
and  writing  should  be  done  by  the  child  in  these  early 
years.  The  motor  brain  centers  of  the  finer  muscles  of  the 
fingers,  which  are  used  in  writing,  and  in  some  kinder- 
garten exercises,  also,  do  not  mature  until  the  age  of  ten 
years.1  When  the  fingers  are  forced  into  work  for  which 
they  are  not  fitted ;  that  is,  when  the  child  cannot  control 
his  motor  expression,  the  result  is  painful  and  unsatisfac- 
tory. The  writing  is  strained  and  awkward  and  bad  writ- 
ing habits  become  fixed  which  are  often  never  outgrown. 
As  to  reading,  one  writer  says,  "The  delicate  eye  move- 
ments, which  reading  involves,  require  a  finer  degree  of 
motor  adjustment,  and  consequently  a  more  rapid  disin- 
tegration of  nerve  tissue  than  the  adjustment  involved  in 
listening.  To  require  children  who  have  but  recently  ac- 
quired the  art  of  reading  to  read  for  any  great  length  of 
time  is  certainly  unhygienic."2 

Professor  Angell  says  that  while  the  muscles  of  the  eye 
and  hand  are  developed  at  five  years  of  age,  they  are  not 
developed  for  the  fine,  close  work  which  is  involved  in 
reading  and  writing.  Professor  Tyler,  speaking  of  the 

1  J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  155. 

2  W.  C.  Bagley,  The  Educative  Process,  p.  269. 


112  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

first  years  of  school  life,  says,  "Make  the  exercise  general, 
stimulating  all  the  areas  and  powers  of  the  brain  suc- 
cessively. It  would  seem  to  be  a  time  for  much  variety 
of  work  rather  than  for  close  correlation,  which  quickly 
fatigues." 

Crowding.  Therefore,  do  not  crowd  young  children. 
If  they  cannot  do  the  work  by  going  over  it  once,  have 
them  go  back  and  take  it  over  again. 

The  fact  must  not  be  overlooked,  however,  that  there  is 
an  element  of  danger  in  having  a  child  take  his  school 
work  a  second  time.  There  is  likely  to  be  a  sense  of 
humiliation  because  of  having  to  fall  back  into  a  lower 
class.  Then  the  work  may  lack  interest  on  account  of  the 
loss  of  novelty.  I  believe  it  is  possible  for  the  mother  to 
overcome  both  of  these  obstacles  and  bring  about  splendid 
results  from  a  repetition  of  the  unsatisfactory  work.  But 
it  is  better  still  that  the  child  should  be  mature  enough  to 
do  the  work  well  when  he  first  comes  to  it. 

Illustration.  An  actual  case  will  illustrate  the  method 
of  one  mother.  At  the  end  of  the  fourth  grade  her  child 
had  failed  in  arithmetic.  He  had  passed  well  in  his  other 
studies  and  the  problem  arose  as  to  what  was  the  best 
thing  to  be  done.  There  was  consultation  with  the  teacher, 
and  she,  fearing  the  above  mentioned  evils,  expressed  a 
willingness  to  allow  the  child  to  try  the  advanced  grade 
for  one  month.  The  mother  was  not  satisfied  with  this 
plan,  and  decided  to  take  the  matter  into  her  own  hands. 
She  talked  with  her  son  about  taking  the  work  over  with 
the  next  class.  (As  the  promotions  were  semi-annual, 
this  meant  losing  a  half  year.)  At  first  the  boy  declared 
he  could  not  possibly  stand  it  to  go  back;  that  he  would 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  113 

rather  die;  he  would  stay  out  of  school  and  work,  or  al- 
most anything  rather  than  go  back.  The  mother  persisted. 
She  finally  succeeded  in  making  the  boy,  who  was  very 
loyal  to  his  parents,  understand  that  his  parents  wished 
him  to  take  the  work  over;  that  it  could  never  be  humil- 
iating to  do  what  is  right;  that  he  could  make  the  work 
interesting  to  himself  if  he  chose  to  dp  so.  The  boy 
accepted  the  parent's  viewpoint  and  entered  into  a  repeti- 
tion of  his  work  with  enthusiasm.  The  outcome  was  suc- 
cessful in  every  way.  The  review  of  the  studies,  especially 
arithmetic,  brought  a  clear  understanding  of  them.  The 
boy  remarked  repeatedly  that  he  enjoyed  his  work  now 
"because  he  understood  it,"  and  was  very  glad  that  he  had 
taken  it  over.  From  being  one  of  the  poorest  members 
of  the  arithmetic  class,  this  boy  became  one  of  the  best, 
and  continued  to  be  so  throughout  his  school  course. 

The  question  is  not  how  much  the  children  can  endure, 
but  what  and  how  much  will  best  promote  growth.  Do 
not  allow  a  child  in  the  first  year  of  school  to  study  at 
home  unless  he  is  conspicuously  weak  in  some  one  study 
and  strong  in  the  others.  In  such  a  case  there  may  be 
justification  in  giving  home  help  in  the  difficult  study. 
Perhaps  there  is  an  unusual  condition  which  the  mother 
can  remove  if  she  understands  it.  But  under  ordinary 
circumstances  the  child  needs  all  his  hours  out  of  school 
for  play,  meals,  and  sleep. 

The  Parents'  Duty.  In  all  matters  pertaining  to  school 
life  be  patient,  but  not  too  patient.  If  at  times  your  ulti- 
mate judgment  tells  you  that  things  are  wrong,  if  you  are 
satisfied  that  they  could  and  should  be  changed,  have  the 
moral  courage  to  do  your  part  towards  effecting  the 


114 


STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 


change.  Perhaps  it  is  true  that  the  prevailing  public 
apathy  towards  public  school  matters  is  better  for  the 
schools  than  an  unwise  and  unconsidered  interest.  To  the 
school  people  the  fault-finding  parent  is  a  grievous  thorn 
in  the  flesh,  but  the  truly  interested,  sympathetic,  cooper- 
ating parent  may  perform  a  real  part  in  the  vital  partner- 
ship of  home  and  school.  What  we  all  wish  for  the 
schools,  and  no  one  more  earnestly  than  the  mother  when 
she  first  comes  in  touch  with  them  through  her  own  child, 
is  that  wisely  directed  and  intelligent  interest  on  the  part 
of  parents  which  will  really  be  able  to  contribute  some- 
thing towards  the  ultimate  solving  of  the  many  problems 
which  now  confront  us. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  USE  IN  CHILD  STUDY 

1.  Describe  the  process  from  the  simple  sensation  to  the  idea. 

2.  Explain  the  need  of  perfect  eyes  and  ears  for  normal  brain 
development. 

3.  Illustrate  the  effect  of  an  imperfect  nervous  system. 

4.  Name  three  conditions  which  prevent  normal  brain  develop- 
ment. 

5.  What  would  you  do  to  help  remove  those  conditions? 

6.  Describe  the  normal  head  of  a  child  as  to  size  and  shape. 

7.  How  do  the  face,  eyes,  and  mouth  indicate  mental  conditions? 

8.  Why  does  the  baby  learn  to  talk? 

9.  Trace  the  different  steps  of  language  development. 

10.  What  can  be  done  to  help  a  child  who  is  slow  in  learning 
to  talk? 

11.  Why  does  a  child  play? 

12.  How  does  play  help  brain  building? 

13.  Discuss  the  value  of  companionship  in  play. 

14.  Discuss  the  uses  and  abuses  of  the  impulse  to  quarrel. 


FROM  TWO  TO  SEVEN  YEARS  115 

15.  What  are  the  causes  and  preventives  of  fear? 

16.  How  should  the  mother  deal  with  the  following  instincts: 
(i)    Curiosity.     (2)    Ownership.     (3)    Boastfulness.     (4)    Cruelty. 
(5)  Bad  language.     (6)  Fighting. 

17.  Give  suggestions  for  the  child's  early  school  life. 

18.  What  is  the  mother's  duty  in  relation  to  the  school? 

19.  What  principles  are  laid  down  regarding  the  early  learning 
of  reading  and  writing? 


CHAPTER  IV 

PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  CHILD  FROM  SEVEN 
TO  TWELVE  YEARS 

i.    GENERAL  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS 

In  the  present  chapter  we  pass  on  to  the  next  period  of 
the  child's  life.  We  find  first  that  he  is  no  longer  a  baby. 
In  many  ways  this  is  a  relief.  The  worry  about  childish 
diseases  which  is  so  likely  to  hover  over  the  mother,  espe- 
cially if  her  child  is  inclined  to  be  delicate,  will  soon  cease 
to  trouble  her  greatly,  since  the  period  of  contagious  and 
infectious  ailments  passes  mostly  with  early  childhood.1 
Again,  since  the  child  has  become  a  pupil  in  school,  he 
has  developed  a  self-reliance  which  was  unknown  to  him 
before. 

In  a  general  way,  it  has  been  said  of  the  period  which 
we  are  now  discussing  that  it  is  more  free  from  storm 
and  stress  than  any  other  period  in  the  entire  life.  The 
long,  helpless  infancy,  beset  with  its  many  dangers,  is 
past.  Early  childhood,  when  so  many  things  had  to  be 
learned  and  so  many  habits  established,  is  safely  over, 
while  adolescence,  with  its  great  physical  changes  and 
its  mental  and  moral  upheavals,  has  not  yet  begun.  It  is 
true  that  the  approach  of  adolescence  cannot  be  definitely 
timed.  It  often  gives  warning  of  its  approach  earlier 
than  the  twelfth  year.  But  the  period  under  discussion 

1 J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  95. 

116 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  117 

is  the  pre-adolescent  period,  and  will  close  for  any  par- 
ticular child  as  soon  as  adolescence  arrives. 

The  growth  at  this  time  is  likely  to  be  regular.  Unless 
there  is  some  unusual  happening,  such  as  a  severe  fit  of 
sickness — which  is  not  likely — or  an  accident,  which,  if 
the  child  is  a  boy,  is  more  common — as  said  above,  the 
mother  may  rely  with  considerable  confidence  upon  the 
fact  that  Dame  Nature  will  exercise  care  in  making  these 
years  safe  and  comfortable  ones  for  the  child  of  either 
sex.  I  have  referred  to  the  fact  that  these  are  the  years 
when  we  may  expect  good  things  for  our  children  on  the 
physical  side  at  least.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  latter  • 
part  of  the  period.  Says  Dr.  Tanner:  "The  period 
immediately  preceding  adolescence  is  the  healthiest  time 
of  life."1 

A  Menace.  But  it  is  unfortunately  true  that,  under 
our  present  ways  of  living,  children  undergo  some  ex- 
periences at  this  time  which  are  so  entirely  artificial  and 
so  abnormal  from  the  standpoint  of  proper  physical  and 
hygienic  conditions  that  Mother  Nature,  although  she 
does  her  best,  is  in  great  danger  of  being  defeated  in  the 
very  shadow  of  her  own  stronghold.  I  refer  particu- 
larly to  the  fact  that  the  school-life  of  the  children  of 
the  present  day,  as  shown  by  statistics,  is  not  only  a  great 
strain  upon  the  physical  organism,  but  that  in  many  cases 
it  is  proving  a  peril  to  present  happiness  and  a  menace 
to  future  usefulness.  The  health  record  of  children  who 
do  not  attend  school  is  higher  than  that  of  children  who 
attend  school.2  The  records  also  show  a  gradual  dete- 

1  Amy  Tanner,  The  Child,  p.  26,  p.  280. 

2  S.  H.  Rowe,  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child,  p.  147 ;  Tyler,  p.  101 


Il8  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

rioration  in  the  health  of  children  who  have  been  in  school 
for  a  number  of  years.  It  is  a  condition  that  demands 
thoughtful  consideration,  and  one  to  which  we  shall  return 
later. 

Prominent  Manifestations.  I  have  spoken  of  the  regu- 
larity and  comparative  routine  of  the  physical  life  during 
these  years.  On  this  account  it  should  not  be  difficult  to 
maintain  systematic  habits  of  eating,  sleeping  and  exer- 
cise, and  in  most  cases  it  is  not  so.  Because  of  this  very 
regularity,  and  of  a  certain  sameness  in  physical  and 
mental  manifestations  among  children,  the  period  has  been 
found  by  some  to  be  less  interesting  than  other  periods. 
Not  only  this,  but  nature  shows  a  tendency  at  this  point 
to  lead  her  children  into  a  state  of  semi-savagery  which 
is  most  trying  to  their  elders.  It  may  be  considered  as 
a  reversion  to  a  "state  of  nature,"  in  which  we  often 
describe  their  manner  of  behavior  by  saying  that  they 
"act  like  little  animals."  This  is  literally  true.  Con- 
ventional standards  and  ideals  are  ignored,  and  individual 
preferences  and  inclinations  insist  upon  having  full  play. 
The  result  is  that  while  in  some  children  we  meet  with 
a  sameness  and  monotony  which  are  uninteresting,  in 
others  we  find  an  uncouthness  which  is  absolutely  dis- 
agreeable. Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall  has  well  expressed  this 
condition  in  the  following  words: 

"In  spite  of  all  that  the  theorist  can  say,  I  fear  that 
even  the  fond  mother  must  put  on  her  rose-colored  glasses 
to  see  much  that  is  lovable  in  the  boy  or  girl  at  this  age. 
There  is  less  sentiment  and  more  selfishness  displayed.  It 
is  not  that  the  child  is  depraved  or  retrograding,  but  the 
heavier  animal  type  seems  to  predominate,  as  though  the 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  1 19 

higher  and  more  spiritual  qualities  were  resting  in  prep- 
aration for  their  triumphant  appearance  during  the  next 
period.1 

"During  these  years  a  child,  especially  a  boy,  should 
fight  and  be  fought,  be  in  many  scraps  and  have  bad  asso- 
ciates, have  many  forms  of  ethical  mumps  and  measles. 
He  is  fortunate  if  he  can  have  them  in  mild  form  now 
and  still  be  rendered  immune  from  later  and  more  dan- 
gerous attacks.  Something  is  amiss  with  a  lad  of  ten 
who  is  very  good,  studious,  industrious,  truthful,  altru- 
istic, polite,  respectful,  obedient,  gentle,  manly,  orderly, 
always  in  good  toilet,  always  turns  away  from  stories  that 
reek  with  gore,  prefers  adult  companionship  to  that  of 
his  mates,  refuses  all  low  associates,  speaks  standard 
English,  is  pious  and  deeply  in  love  with  religious  serv- 
ices. Such  a  boy  is  either  undervitalized  and  anaemic  or 
a  repressed,  over-trained  manikin;  a  hypocrite,  as  one 
can  become  under  pressure  even  at  this  early  age,  or  else 
a  genius  of  some  kind." 

Probably  many  mothers  have  experienced  the  truth  in 
the  above  sentiment.  So  clear  a  statement  of  facts  is 
helpful  to  everyone  who  is  trying  to  deal  with  children  in 
an  intelligent  way. 

Therefore,  while  we  recognize  the  characteristics  of 
crude  and  incipient  savagery  in  our  children,  we  need 
not  accept  them  as  final  or  permanent.  We  recognize 
that  these  little  half-animals  have  been  given  to  us  to  be 
trained.  In  other  words,  our  duty  is  to  train  out  the 
animal  and  train  in  the  man;  to  so  foster  self -develop- 
ment and  so  teach  self-control  that  the  lower  qualities 

1 G.  Stanley  Hall,  Adolescence,  Vol.  II,  p.  452. 


120  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

shall  be  subordinated  and  the  higher  ones  shall  become 
the  masters. 

Measurements.  One  of  the  first  considerations  in  the 
physical  development  of  this  period  will  be  the  child's 
stature.  Below  are  the  tables  compiled  by  Dr.  G.  Stanley 
Hall,  showing  the  average  height,  weight  and  chest  girth 
of  American  boys  and  girls  between  the  ages  of  seven 
and  twelve  years.1 

AGE                                             HEIGHT  WEIGHT 

Years                                      Inches  Inches  Pounds  Pounds 

Boys  Girls  Boys  Girls 

6^ 43-9  43-3  45-2  434 

7*A  46  457  49-5  477 

8K  48.8  477  54-5  52.5 

91/*  50  497  59-6  574 

10^  51.9  517  65.4  62.9 

"54  53-6  53-8  707  69.5 

i2*/2  554  56.1  76.9  787 

AGE  CHEST  GIRTH 

Average  between  expiration  and 

inspiration. 
Boys  Girls 

6  years   23.24  inches  22.97  inches 

7  years 23.87  inches  23.41  inches 

8  years   24.48  inches  23.94  inches 

9  years   25.16  inches  24.61  inches 

10  years   25.80  inches  24.81  inches 

1 1  years    26.47  inches  25.92  inches 

12  years   27.07  inches  26.89  inches 

Significance  of  This  Data.  These  tables  are  suggestive 
and  helpful  in  showing  what  are  the  average  dimensions 
for  normal  boys  and  girls,  but  their  greatest  value  is  that 
they  show  what  increase  should  be  expected  from  year  to 
year.  As  has  already  been  said,  the  index  of  a  child's 

i  S.  H.  Rowe,  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child,  p.  124, 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  121 

good  bodily  condition  is  his  normal  growth.  The  growth 
is  more  rapid  in  summer  than  in  winter.  Spring  and 
early  summer  show  a  greater  increase  in  height;  late 
summer  and  fall  show  more  increase  in  weight.1 

During  the  early  part  of  this  period,  i.  e.,  not  far  from 
the  seventh  year,  we  find  that  the  heart  is  at  its  minimum 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body.  It  has  but  little 
more  than  one- fourth  its  adult  weight,  while  the  body 
has  two-thirds  of  its  adult  weight.  The  increase  of  the 
body  over  the  heart  causes  an  increased  drain  upon  this 
organ  and  a  drain  that  may  be  out  of  proportion  to  its 
ability.  On  this  account  there  are  often  what  seem  to  be 
signs  of  heart  weakness  at  this  period.  But  these  are 
only  temporary  and  disappear  when,  a  little  later,  the 
relative  sizes  are  again  adjusted.  The  other  organs  of 
the  body  seem,  in  a  way,  to  be  resting  too.  This  seeming 
rest  is  in  possible  anticipation  of  the  unusually  large  in- 
crease which  comes  to  them  during  the  approaching 
adolescent  years. 

2.    THE  MUSCULAR  SYSTEM 

Relative  Weight  of  Muscles.  The  muscles  increase  in 
size  and  strength  quite  rapidly  during  this  period.  The 
vital  connection  between  the  muscular  and  the  nervous 
systems  has  been  dwelt  upon  in  an  earlier  chapter.  Dur- 
ing the  entire  time  from  infancy  to  maturity  the  weight 
of  the  muscular  system  increases  thirty-seven  to  forty- 
eight  times  its  weight  at  birth.  We  realize  what  a  large 
increase  this  is  when  we  learn  that  the  fully  developed 

1 J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  66. 


122  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

t 

lungs  are  but  twenty  times  heavier  than  those  of  the  new- 
born baby,1  while  the  liver  and  the  kidneys  of  the  adult 
are  only  twelve  or  thirteen  times  heavier  than  they  were 
at  birth,  and  the  adult  heart  is  twelve  and  one-half  times 
heavier  than  that  of  the  infant.2 

The  entire  adult  weight  of  the  average  person  is  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  times  his  baby  weight.  From  this  we 
see  that  most  of  the  .other  parts  of  the  body  as  a  whole 
have  a  better  start  when  the  child  is  born  than  the  muscles 
do.  This  large  increase  during  youth  in  weight  of  the 
muscles  does  not  come  for  nothing.  Nature  sends  a  loud 
call  to  the  parents  to  cooperate  with  her  in  the  important 
work  of  muscle  building.  Given  an  adequate  supply  of 
food,  fresh  air,  exercise  and  sleep  Nature  will  do  the 
rest,  but  she  cannot  work  successfully  unaided. 

Location  of  Muscles.  In  a  study  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  muscular  system  we  find  that  there  are,  first,  the 
large,  heavy  muscles  of  the  trunk;  second,  those  of  the 
lower  limbs,  which  are  involved  in  walking  and  running; 
third,  there  are  the  muscles  of  the  upper  and  fore  arm, 
which  are  used  by  the  child  in  all  kinds  of  climbing,  tug- 
ging and  pulling;  and  fourth,  last  of  all,  there  are  the 
more  delicate  muscles  of  the  hand  and  fingers.  All  these 
muscles  have  their  regular  time  for  developing  as  well  as 
their  regular  order  of  coordination  with  brain  centers. 
For,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the  effectiveness  of  the 
muscles  depends  not  only  upon  their  own  health  and 
strength  but  upon  the  proper  coordination  of  those  brain 
areas  in  which  they  center. 

1  E.  A.  Kirkpatrick,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  p.  19. 

2  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Youth,  p.  57. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  123 

Motor  Ideals.  On  account  of  muscle  development,  the 
ideals  of  the  period  are  largely  motor,  and  properly  so, 
for  the  chief  business  of  the  child  is  to  grow  and  store 
up  strength  and  vitality.  By  the  expression  "motor 
ideals"  is  meant  the  state  of  mind  in  the  child  when  the 
thing  which  seems  to  be  the  most  desirable  is  great  bodily 
strength  and  the  ability  to  do  things  by  means  of  supe- 
riority of  the  body.  Motion  of  all  kinds  is  attractive. 
Pictures  and  stories  involving  movement  best  hold  the 
attention;  activity  in  real  life,  such  as  performing  animals 
and  human  gymnastics,  never  fails  to  rouse  enthusiasm. 
Both  boys  and  girls  are  affected  by  these  ideals,  but  the 
conventionalities  of  modern  society  place  before  the  grow- 
ing girl  a  quite  different  form  of  ideals,  so  that  the  normal 
motor  one  seldom  becomes  as  strong  as  in  the  boy,  and 
often  fades  away  and  practically  disappears.  The  desira- 
bility of  encouraging  these  motor  ideals,  and  of  giving 
them  the  freest  possible  scope  of  development  is  apparent. 

Adequate  Play.  The  best  results  along  this  line  come 
from  simple  play  as  an  end  in  itself,  distinguished  from 
work  on  the  one  hand,  where  there  is  an  objective  end, 
and  amusement,  on  the  other,  where  the  child  is  only  a 
passive  factor.  It  is  all  too  true  that  for  our  city-bred 
children  there  is  little  or  no  place  for  the  carrying  out 
of  this  normal  instinct.  But  this  very  condition  makes  it 
all  the  more  imperative  that  the  parents  secure  what  shall 
serve  as  reasonable  substitutes  for  the  large  yards  and 
ample  vacant  lots  of  former  days.  The  physical  life  of 
this  period  demands  such  games  as  baseball,  basket  ball, 
chalk  chase,  hare  and  hounds,  hide  and  seek,  jumping 
rope,  pull-away,  bean  bags,  and  many  more. 


124  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

Then  there  are  many  plays  of  the  children's  own  mak- 
ing, into  which  they  will  enter  when  they  are  free  from 
critical  supervision.  We  must  always  remember  that 
healthful  play  involves  much  noise,  and  provision  must 
be  made  for  it.  If  the  play  space  is  small,  and  it  is  likely 
to  be  in  closely  settled  communities,  see  that  it  is  equipped 
with  dry  goods  boxes,  pieces  of  boards  and  old  rugs. 
These  will  suggest  to  the  active  mind  of  the  child  all  man- 
ner of  interesting  things  to  do.  Tyler  says,  "Nature  does 
not  ask  for  athletics,  but  for  sufficient  suitable  exercise  to 
promote  the  healthy  growth  of  the  muscles  and  vital 
organs,  and  through  these,  of  the  brain.  She  is  now 
intent  upon  producing  a  well-grown  and  healthy  body, 
the  first  essential  step  toward  men  and  women  of  power 
and  efficiency." 

3.    THE  EYES 

Increase  of  Eye  Troubles.  Eye  troubles  develop  quite 
insidiously  during  these  uninterrupted  years  of  school 
attendance.  Griffith  says  that  the  ten-year-old  child  should 
see  and  hear  better  than  the  adult. 

Hence  when  we  learn  that  eye  troubles  increase  at  the 
rate  of  twenty  per  cent  in  some  of  the  school  grades,1 
we  may  feel  certain  that  there  is  something  wrong  in  the 
conditions  which  surround  the  child.  The  probability  is 
that  the  trouble  here,  as  in  other  cases  which  will  be  enu- 
merated, is  the  joint  product  of  carelessness  in  both  home 
and  school.  As  far  as  the  home  is  concerned,  the  mother 
is  surely  the  one  to  remedy  the  evils,  and  she  as  surely 
will  when  she  comes  to  understand  them.  According  to 
school  tests  which  have  been  recently  made,  the  larger 

1  S.  H.  Rowe,  Physical  Development  of  the  Child,  Chap.  II. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  125 

number  of  eye  troubles  are  reported  as  simple  "weakness" 
and  shortsightedness. 

Signs  and  Causes  of  Eye  Trouble.  One  of  the  first 
indications  of  eye  trouble,  but  one  which  is  not  usually 
recognized  as  such,  is  headache.  Other  signs  are  watering 
of  the  eyes,  swollen  lids,  pus  discharge  and  a  strained 
look.  The  eye  tests  mentioned  in  an  earlier  chapter  will 
be  available  here. 

Among  the  causes  of  these  bad  conditions  in  the  eyes 
are  using  the  eyes  in  a  dim  light,  reading  fine  print,  wear- 
ing tight  collars,  smoking  cigarettes,  breathing  impure  air, 
lack  of  nourishing  food,  and  improper  clothing.  As  to 
these  last  two  items,  it  has  been  found  that  the  wealth  or 
poverty  of  the  home  is  by  no  means  a  criterion.  Children 
in  the  homes  of  the  rich  are  often  allowed  to  eat  food 
which  is  poor  in  its  nourishing  qualities,  while  the  clothing 
of  the  children  of  the  well-to-do,  especially  that  of  the 
girls,  is  notably  insufficient  and  unhygienic.  As  in  the 
case  of  many  other  ills,  if  the  mother  finds  that  her  child's 
eyes  are  not  in  the  best  condition,  she  must  go  back  to 
the  fundamental  requirements  of  food,  clothing,  and 
sleep.  An  earlier  chapter  took  up  some  specific  points 
in  the  treatment  of  the  eyes. 

4.    THE  EARS 

Large  Amount  of  Deafness.  Taking  up  next  the  sub- 
ject of  hearing,  we  find  that  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the 
school  children  from  seven  to  twelve  are  somewhat  deaf. 
Marked  deafness  is  of  course  easily  noticed,  but  slight 
deafness,  which  is  only  shown  by  what  sometimes  seems 
to  be  inattention,  is  often  overlooked.  The  ear  tests  re- 


126  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

ferred  to  in  a  previous  chapter  will  be  very  useful  here. 
Causes  of  Deafness.  Among  the  common  causes  of 
deafness  are  the  after  effects  of  scarlet  fever  and  measles, 
nasal  catarrh,  enlarged  tonsils,  and  adenoids.  These  are 
all  accentuated  by  an  unwholesome  home  life.  The  last 
three  are  removable  as  causes  of  deafness.  Do  not  delay 
in  consulting  a  physician  at  the  first  signs  of  deafness. 
Nasal  catarrh  in  its  early  stages  will  yield  to  local  treat- 
ment. The  operation  for  removing  tonsils  and  adenoids 
is  comparatively  simple. 

5.    THE  NOSE 

The  nose  is  somewhat  intimately  connected  with  the 
ears  and  is  often  the  seat  of  ear  difficulties.  The  en- 
largement of  the  nasal  pharynx  is  what  has  been  referred 
to  as  adenoid  growths.  The  nasal  pharynx  is  a  tissue 
lying  between  the  eustachian  tubes,  which  connect  the  ears 
and  the  throat.  This  tissue  is  only  temporary  and  should 
be  absorbed  at  about  the  sixteenth  year.  But  if,  as  is 
often  the  case,  it  becomes  diseased,  it  enlarges.  In  its 
enlarged  state  it  has  the  appearance  of  half  a  walnut  with 
the  shell  removed,  and  is  in  the  nature  of  enlarged  tonsils. 
The  size  diminishes  in  warm  weather  and  increases  when 
the  child  takes  cold.  The  clefts  of  the  tissue  become 
inflamed  and  discharge  muco-pus.  These  adenoid  growths 
are  likely  to  be  the  culmination  of  repeated  attacks  of  in- 
flammation of  the  lining  of  the  nose,  or  nasal  catarrh. 
Catarrhal  colds  are  largely  infections,  and  exposure  to 
dampness  and  drafts  are  favoring  conditions  for  their 
development.1  Under  these  circumstances  bacteria,  which 

1  Hough  and  Sedgwick,  The  Human  Mechanism,  p.  381. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  127 

are  ordinarily  inhaled  without  harm,  gain  a  foothold,  and 
the  result  is  an  inflammation  of  the  tissues  with  attendant 
congestion. 

Causes  of  Adenoid  Growths.  This  diseased  condition 
of  the  tissues  is  very  likely  to  occur  with  children  who 
spend  part  of  each  day  in  overheated,  ill-ventilated  rooms, 
and  the  other  part  out  of  doors,  dressed  in  insufficient 
clothing.  The  early  stages  of  the  inflammation  are  shown 
by  constant  or  frequent  running  at  the  nose  and  repeated 
sniffing. 

Results.  When  it  becomes  chronic  and  adenoids  de- 
velop, mouth-breathing  is  quite  a  common  symptom;  a 
dry  deposit  may  appear  about  the  teeth,  and  the  tonsils 
may  become  inflamed.  This  condition  has  been  some- 
times revealed  in  the  school-room  by  bad  enunciation. 
Later  the  enlarged  nasal  pharynx,  or  adenoid  growth,  may 
extend  forward  into  the  nose  and  close  it  as  effectively  as 
a  stopper  closes  a  bottle.  It  is  then  impossible  to  breathe 
through  the  nose,  and  the  mouth  breathing,  which 
necessarily  ensues,  draws  greatly  upon  the  vitality  of 
the  child. 

Further,  this  enlarged  tissue  presses  against  the  eusta- 
chian  tubes  and  produces  deafness.  Statistics  show  that 
a  very  large  per  cent  of  defective  hearing  among  children 
is  caused  by  adenoids.  Again,  adenoids  may  affect  the 
brain,  or  may  result  in  the  child  becoming  what  is  known 
as  pigeon-breasted.  In  this  case  the  sternum  seems  to 
project  on  account  of  a  slight  depression  or  groove  which 
appears  on  each  side  of  it.  It  is  especially  evident  during 
sleep.  The  proper  treatment  for  such  conditions  is  to 
have  the  adenoids  promptly  removed.  The  child  who  goes 


128  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

through  his  second  dentition  with  nasal  obstructions  will 
bear  the  marks  of  it  all  his  life.1 

Catarrhal  Troubles.  Catarrh  is  an  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membrane  which  lines  the  respiratory  channels 
of  the  throat  and  head.  This  inflammation  results  in  too 
large  an  amount  of  secretion  from  the  membrane.  This 
abnormal  condition  is  aggravated,  and  sometimes  brought 
on,  by  the  breathing  of  impure  air. 

Nasal  catarrh,  as  suggested  by  the  name,  affects  the 
lining  of  the  nose.  The  interior  mechanism  of  the  ear  is 
closely  connected  with  that  of  the  nose,  and  the  delicate 
ear  passages  are  affected  and  obstructed  by  this  disease. 
Hence,  deafness  is  almost  sure  to  follow  an  extreme  case 
of  nasal  catarrh. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  a  tendency  to  catarrhal 
troubles  should  be  met  by  good  domestic  hygiene  and 
muscular  exercise.  Teach  the  child  to  take  deep,  slow 
inspirations,  and  the  nose  will  become  clear.  Use  all  the 
ribs  as  well  as  the  diaphragm  in  this  process.  A  practice 
of  deep  breathing  with  good  muscular  exercise,  not  car- 
ried, however,  to  the  point  of  weariness,  may  even  cut 
short  the  common  cold. 

6.    THE  TEETH 

Since  the  range  of  this  discussion  is  to  include  all  parts 
of  the  child's  body,  let  us  now  turn  to  the  consideration 
of  a  portion  of  his  anatomy  which  requires  much  atten- 
tion. I  refer  to  the  teeth. 

First   Permanent   Teeth.     The   permanent   teeth   are 

1  Dr.  Earnest  B.  Wiggett,  Diseases  of  the  Nose,  p.  70. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  129 

likely  to  come  in  without  any  especially  noisy  announce- 
ment. But  their  quiet  arrival  is  no  guarantee  of  their 
subsequent  good  behavior.  On  the  contrary  they  will 
make  it  their  business  to  decay  as  soon  as  they  possibly 
can,  which  may  be  very  soon,  unless  the  mother  has  been 
upon  the  lookout  for  their  coming  and  has  taken  all  pos- 
sible pains  to  keep  them  clean.  The  twenty  teeth  known 
as  the  temporary  or  milk  teeth  have  been  previously  spoken 
of.  When  these  begin  to  loosen  and  fall  out,  of  course, 
you  know  that  the  second  group  is  near  at  hand.  These 
second  teeth  come  in  groups,  just  as  the  first  did,  but 
here,  as  in  the  other  case,  it  is  hard  to  identify  the  groups 
because  the  time  of  their  appearance  is  so  irregular. 

First  Group.  The  first  permanent  teeth  come  before 
the  beginning  of  this  period;  namely,  in  the  sixth  year.1 
They  are  known  as  the  first  four  molars  and  come  directly 
behind  the  posterior  molars  of  the  first  set.  There  is 
almost  sure  to  be  some  confusion  about  the  teeth  at  this 
stage,  for  there  are  temporary  and  permanent  teeth  in  the 
mouth  at  the  same  time,  and  it  is  sometimes  quite  impos- 
sible to  distinguish  them  by  their  appearance.  The  aver- 
age child,  too,  is  likely  to  object  seriously  to  holding  his 
mouth  open  for  any  length  of  time  while  the  anxious 
mother  gazes  first  below  and  then  above  in  her  desire  to 
locate  and  identify  each  one  of  these  important  factors 
in  her  child's  anatomy. 

Second  Group.  After  the  first  four  molars,  which  come 
at  six  years  of  age,  we  have  the  four  central  incisors, 
two  above  and  two  below,  which  come  at  seven  years. 
Sometimes  those  in  the  upper  jaw  come  first;  sometimes 

1 J.  P.  C.  Griffith,  Care  of  the  Baby,  p.  63. 


130  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

those  in  the  lower,  but  they  always  seem  remarkably  slow 
in  coming,  since  they  push  their  tiny  predecessors  out 
some  weeks  in  advance  of  their  own  advent,  and  all 
mothers  recognize  that  the  toothless  gums  do  not  enhance 
the  beauty  of  the  face. 

Third  Group.  At  eight  years  of  age,  four  more  teeth 
appear,  one  on  each  side  of  the  central  group.  These 
are  known  as  the  four  lateral  incisors.  It  seems  a  long 
time  before  these  eight  front  teeth  are  all  fairly  settled 
in  their  places. 

Fourth  Group.  At  nine  or  ten  years  of  age  come  the 
first  four  bicuspids.  They  take  the  places  of  the  anterior 
molars  of  the  first  set. 

Fifth  Group.  At  ten  or  eleven,  the  second  four  bicus- 
pids take  the  places  of  the  posterior  molars  of  the  first  set. 

Sixth  Group.  From  eleven  to  thirteen,  the  canines 
may  be  looked  for.  Watch  these  canines  from  the  start, 
for  they  are  more  often  crooked  than  any  of  the  other 
teeth.  If  they  are  out  of  place  do  not  wait  long  before 
seeing  a  dentist.  The  pain  and  expense  of  straightening 
teeth  are  less  when  the  work  is  done  early. 

Seventh  Group.  From  twelve  to  fifteen,  the  second 
four  molars  come  in,  back  of  all  the  other  teeth.  This 
makes  fourteen  permanent  teeth  in  each  jaw,  all  that  will 
appear  until  the  seventeenth  or  eighteenth  year. 

Eighth  Group.  At  this  time  the  four  wisdom  teeth 
come,  two  in  each  jaw,  back  of  the  second  molars. 

It  is  desirable  not  to  have  the  first  teeth  drawn,  but  to 
let  them  remain  in  the  mouth  until  pushed  out  by  the 
second  set,  thus  insuring  to  the  second  teeth  the  nourish- 
ment supplied  by  the  roots  of  the  first.  If  the  first  teeth 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  131 

decay  in  spite  of  all  efforts,  have  them  filled.  It  is  not 
expensive  and  it  is  well  worth  doing,  even  though  the 
teeth  remain  in  the  mouth  but  a  short  time. 

Now  that  the  teeth  are  in,  let  me  advise  every  mother 
to  watch  them  as  she  would  watch  her  rarest  jewels. 
They  cannot  be  stolen  away  in  a  night,  but  before  you 
know  it  the  subtle  forces  of  decay  will  take  possession  of 
them,  and  they  can  never  be  replaced. 

Pyorrhea.  There  is  also  a  disease  which  attacks  the 
gums,  even  of  growing  children.  It  is  called  pyorrhea. 
The  mother  should  be  on  the  lookout  for  it.  The  symp- 
toms are  an  unnatural  redness  and  softness  of  the  gums 
and  a  drawing  away  of  the  gums  from  the  teeth.  The 
accumulation  of  tartar  on  the  teeth  aggravates  these  symp- 
toms. Consult  the  dentist  if  you  discover  any  signs  of 
pyorrhea. 

The  modern  treatment  of  this  disease  often  involves 
severe  medicines,  which  it  is  hardly  safe  for  the  mother 
to  handle.  But  in  the  meantime  secure  a  bottle  of  lavoris 
from  your  druggist.  Dilute  it  one-half  for  a  child  and 
use  it  as  a  mouth  wash.  Also  ask  your  dentist  for  a 
bundle  of  orange  wood  sticks.  These  sticks  are  in  such 
a  shape  as  to  enable  you  to  work  close  down  to  the  gums 
and  polish  away  any  substance  which  may  be  inclined  to 
accumulate  upon  the  teeth. 

7.    THE  INTERACTION  OF  MIND  AND  BODY 

Posture.  We  find  that  during  the  period  we  are  now 
studying,  a  lack  of  nervous  force,  and  a  condition  of  im- 
perfect nourishment,  are  often  indicated  by  the  posture 


132  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

and  carriage  of  the  body.  Posture  not  only  shows  the 
condition  of  the  body,  but  the  condition  of  mind  as  well. 
Watch  the  child  and  see  if  there  is  a  balance  and  symmetry 
in  his  body.  See  if  there  is  strength  and  force  of  move- 
ment with  energy  and  activity. 

Carriage.  The  manner  of  a  child's  walking  can  be 
made  a  very  practical  study.  An  awkward,  shuffling  gait 
indicates  a  careless,  irresponsible  nature.  Then,  there  is 
a  sneaking  gait  which  shows  uncertainty  and  lack  of 
frankness.  The  cowardly,  over-submissive  child  walks 
with  head  forward  and  shoulders  drooping.  The  confi- 
dent, frank  child  walks  with  head  erect  and  shoulders 
back.  The  mother  has  a  duty  here,  for  the  mind  can  be 
affected  through  the  body.  In  other  words,  what  is  usu- 
ally the  effect  may  be  made  the  cause.  If  right  attitudes 
of  body  are  encouraged  and  accomplished,  it  will  help 
to  establish  right  habits  of  mind.  We  have  all  heard  of 
the  boy  who  whistled  to  keep  up  his  courage.  In  like 
manner,  smile  and  you  will  feel  like  smiling.  Encourage 
the  child  to  walk  erect  and  forcefully  and  the  very  doing 
so  will  conduce  to  rectitude  and  force  of  mind  and  char- 
acter. The  child  who  is  naturally  despondent  can  be 
brought  out  of  such  a  state  if  you  can  persuade  him  to 
carry  his  head  and  chest  up  and  his  shoulders  back.  It 
has  been  said  that  custom  precedes  morality.  Let  the 
right  physical  habit  be  secured  and  it  will  go  a  long  way 
towards  perfecting  the  mental  attitude. 

Behavior  in  Sleep.  Beside  the  watchfulness  over  the 
child  when  he  is  awake,  the  mother  should  watch  him 
while  he  is  asleep.1  See  if  he  takes  an  easy  posture  in 

*S.  H.  Rowe,  Physical  Nature  of  the  Ch'.d,  p.  103. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  133 

sleep,  and  especially  see  that  he  has  good  air.  He  will 
rest  more  easily  upon  his  side.  Free  heart  action,  as  well 
as  relief  for  congested  and  enlarged  liver,  is  secured  by 
sleeping  on  the  right  side.  A  flatulent  stomach  is  relieved 
by  lying  on  the  left  side.  Mouth-breathing  is  more  easily 
overcome  if  the  child  sleeps  on  the  side.  Dr.  Griffith 
suggests  that  the  habit  of  sleeping  on  the  side  can  be 
secured  by  tying  a  spool  securely  to  the  small  of  the  back.1 

Curvature  of  the  Spine.  Children  of  this  period  are 
sometimes  affected  with  a  curvature  of  the  spine.2  Long 
periods  of  sitting,  without  adequate  change  of  posture, 
in  seats  which  do  not  fit  the  shape  of  the  hips  and  back, 
combine  to  induce  this  deformity.  A  large  number  of 
statistics  compiled  from  German  schools  show  that  prac- 
tically all  the  cases  of  the  curvature  of  the  spine,  and  the 
number  was  alarmingly  large,  were  contracted  between 
the  ages  of  five  and  fourteen.3 

Carrying  heavy  bundles  always  upon  the  same  side, 
such  as  sacks  of  newspapers,  may  also  produce  curvature 
in  the  growing  boy.  The  earliest  symptoms  are  difficult 
to  discover.  If  the  child  seems  to  be  listless,  pale  or  in 
any  other  way  indicates  deficiency  in  nerve  force,  it  will 
be  wise  to  make  frequent  and  careful  inspections  of  his 
back  and  hips.  The  more  advanced  stages  will  be  shown 
by  a  definite  leaning  to  one  side  and  an  irregularity  in 
gait.  The  child  with  curvature  of  the  spine  should  be 
taken  out  of  school,  kept  in  the  open  air  and  encouraged 
to  engage  in  spontaneous  active  play.  The  usual  nerve 

1  Griffith,  p.  351. 

2  Tyler,  p.  143. 

3  S,  H.  Rowe,  op.  cit.,  p.  154. 


I34  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT. 

remedies  of  regular  sleep,  exercise,  and  food  should,  of 
course,  receive  constant  attention.  It  will  be  best  to  con- 
sult a  physician  as  soon  as  you  detect  any  signs  of 
curvature. 

Nervous  System  and  Brain.  The  close  connection  be- 
tween the  nervous  system  and  the  brain  has  already  been 
referred  to.  Warner  says  that  all  expression  of  mental 
action  is  but  movement.  We  have  already  seen  that  the 
brain  centers  at  first  act  separately,  but  as  the  mind  de- 
velops the  separate  brain  centers  become  capable  of  uniting 
by  the  formation  of  nerve  paths  between  them.  Later 
they  become  so  connected  as  to  act  in  unison  or  in  a  series 
one  after  the  other,  in  an  established  order.  For  example : 
You  have  often  noticed  that  a  little  child,  even  of  con- 
siderable muscular  ability,  cannot  throw  a  ball  to  a  desig- 
nated point.  As  he  grows  older  he  finds  that  he  can  do 
so,  especially  after  practice.  An  idiot  or  a  weak-minded 
child  does  not  learn  to  throw  with  accuracy.  This  is  what 
has  already  been  referred  to  as  coordinated  brain  action. 

Illustration  by  Means  of  Telephone  System.  The  in- 
teraction of  these  different  brain  centers  is  sometimes 
illustrated  by  the  telephone  system  where  all  orders  are 
given  through  a  central  exchange.  The  whole  city  con- 
taining the  telephone  system  may  be  compared  to  the 
entire  brain.  The  individual  telephones  represent  the  so- 
called  brain  centers.  The  order  which  is  given  to  the 
operator  corresponds  to  the  sense  impression,  such  as  the 
sight  of  a  red  apple  or  the  bite  of  a  mosquito.  At  the 
given  order  (the  impression)  certain  telephones  are  tem- 
porarily connected  by  the  electric  wires.  These  wires  are 
analogous  to  the  nerve  paths  between  the  brain  centers. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  135 

By  means  of  these  paths  the  brain  centers  act  in  unison 
and  in  harmony  with  the  impression.  This  illustration 
is  inadequate,  however,  because  of  the  time  required  to 
manipulate  the  telephone.  The  reaching  for  the  red  apple 
before  training  has  taught  self-restraint  follows  instantly 
upon  the  sight  of  it,  as  does  the  slapping  of  the  mosquito 
after  the  bite  is  felt.  Different  centers  may  connect  tem- 
porarily and  then  "ring  off/'  to  be  connected  later  with 
other  centers.1 

Warner  refers  to  this  process  as  the  nerve  muscular 
mechanism  indicating  or  expressing  the  thoughts  arising 
in  the  mind.  Movements  produced  by  the  muscles  are 
thus  indices  of  what  goes  on  among  the  brain  centers  that 
produce  them.  Of  course  the  process  of  thinking  can  go 
on  without  being  expressed,  just  as  the  works  of  the  clock 
could  keep  on  going  even  though  there  were  no  hands  to 
show  what  time  they  were  making.  But  just  as  we  need 
the  hands  to  know  if  the  clock  is  working  correctly,  so 
we  need  the  movements  of  the  body  to  tell  us  if  the  brain 
is  working  correctly.  We  see  again  in  order  to  under- 
stand mental  action  in  the  brain  we  must  study  physio- 
logical processes.  Good  coordination  of  movements  of 
the  muscles  indicates  good  coordination  of  brain  centers 
which  control  these  movements. 

A  healthy  body  helps  to  make  a  healthy  brain,  and  a 
well-regulated  brain  helps  to  keep  the  rest  of  the  body 
in  good  health.  Healthy  lungs  and  good  breathing  afford 
a  supply  of  pure  blood  to  the  brain.  Here,  again,  we 
meet  the  fact  that  good  food,  well-digested,  is  necessary 
for  a  good  condition  of  both  body  and  brain.  And,  vice 

1  Warner,  Nervous  System,  42,  107. 


136  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

versa,  a  well-regulated  brain  promotes  good  digestion. 
A  clear  understanding  of  this  close  connection  between 
the  body  and  mind  of  the  child  gives  the  mother  a  fine 
background  for  her  work.  She  is  able  to  see  promptly 
any  manifestations  of  either  physical  or  mental  disturb- 
ances by  a  sort  of  double  vision  which  will  hardly  allow 
her  to  go  astray.  That  is  to  say,  physical  behavior  indi- 
cates both  bodily  and  mental  states.  Mental  behavior 
indicates  both  mental  and  bodily  states. 

Constipation.  There  are  still  other  phases  of  physical 
life  which  greatly  affect  the  development  of  the  mind. 
They  pertain  to  this  period  of  life  and  are  of  sufficient 
importance  to  warrant  mention.  One  very  trying  and 
persistent  ailment  is  constipation.  It  sometimes  becomes 
so  fixed  during  these  early  years  as  to  make  it  very  diffi- 
cult to  cure  in  later  life.  Lack  of  exercise,  wrong  diet, 
and  insufficient  sleep  are  again  the  causes.  In  this  con- 
nection Dr.  F.  M.  Rankin  has  called  attention  to  the 
necessity  of  personal  cleanliness.  From  one  to  two  and 
one-half  pints  of  effete  matter  pass  off  through  the  skin 
in  twenty-four  hours.  Failure  to  bathe  and  change  the 
clothing  throws  a  dangerous  strain  upon  the  kidneys  and 
the  digestive  organs.  All  but  the  most  persistent  cases 
of  constipation  will  be  corrected  by  proper  diet,  exercise, 
and  care  of  the  body.  Fresh  fruits  and  vegetables,  oat- 
meal, prunes,  whole  wheat  or  graham  bread  and  crackers 
in  preference  to  those  made  from  white  flour,  the  avoid- 
ance of  rice,  cheese  and  other  foods  known  to  have  a 
constipating  tendency  will  all  aid  in  establishing  right 
habits  in  this  particular. 

Clothing.     Dr.  Rankin  says :  "Strength  of  body  at  ma- 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  137 

turity  varies  as  the  proper  amount  of  guidance  and  atten- 
tion to  the  laws  of  hygiene."  He  says,  further,  that  one 
great  source  of  disease  in  children  is  the  wearing  of  the 
same  weight  of  clothing  in  warm  and  cold  weather.  Some 
parents  think  this  is  the  proper  way  of  hardening  the 
child.  His  opinion  upon  this  subject  is  as  follows  i1  "The 
proper  way  to  harden  a  child  is  by  rigid  adherence  to  the 
laws  of  health,  which  will  be  done  by  providing  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  clothing,  plenty  of  out-door  exercise,  pure 
air  to  breathe,  simple  and  good  food,  ample  amount  of 
sleep."  Some  authorities  even  claim  that  inadequate 
clothing  has  proved  an  obstruction  to  normal  physical 
and  mental  growth.  Nature  puts  a  warmer  coat  upon 
her  special  children,  the  animals,  as  soon  as  the  weather 
becomes  colder  in  the  fall.  In  this  respect  the  careful 
mother  will  follow  nature,  and  those  who  live  where  the 
winter  weather  is  extreme  will  cover  the  child  from  throat 
to  ankles  in  a  union  suit  of  warm  material,  after,  or  even 
before,  the  genuine  freeze-up  comes.  See  that  the  head 
and  neck  as  well  as  the  body  are  carefully  protected  when 
the  child  is  out  of  doors;  but  do  not  emulate  those  French 
mothers  who  bundle  up  the  faces  and  heads  of  the  children 
almost  to  suffocation,  while  they  leave  a  portion  of  the 
little  legs  below  the  knee  entirely  bare.  Let  the  stockings 
be  especially  warm  and  long,  and  the  shoes  thick  and  of 
adequate  size. 

Cigarettes.  We  must  now  touch  upon  a  habit  which 
has  grown  to  alarming  proportions  among  the  children  of 
our  country.  Few  mothers  realize  the  extent  to  which  it 
exists;  perhaps  fewer  realize  the  extent  of  the  injury 

1  F.  M.  Rankin,  p.  186, 


138  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

which  is  being  brought  to  those  who  indulge  in  it.  I 
refer  to  cigarette  smoking.  One  authority  declares  that 
in  a  single  state  100,000  boys  under  twelve  years  of  age 
use  cigarettes.1  Investigation  shows  that  this  practice  is 
contracted  in  some  cases  as  early  as  three  years  and  usu- 
ally as  a  result  of  being  taught  by  older  boys.  When 
the  habit  of  cigarette  smoking  is  once  contracted,  it  is 
seldom  broken  off.  The  best  thing  that  can  be  done  is 
to  substitute  a  pipe,  which  is  somewhat  less  injurious, 
though  by  no  means  desirable.  The  habit  of  cigarette 
smoking  shows  itself  in  lustreless  and  often  inflamed 
eyes,  drawn  lips,  trembling  hands,  weak  heart,  disordered 
throat  and  stomach,  hampered  circulation  and  twisted 
spine,  dwarfed  condition  of  the  entire  body.  On  the 
intellectual  side,  cigarette  smokers  rank  low  in  school, 
are  slovenly,  unreliable,  and  untruthful.2  The  logical 
person  to  save  the  boy  from  this  habit,  which  threatens 
his  body,  mind,  and  soul,  is  the  mother.  There  surely  is 
a  way  to  so  watch,  care  for,  and  train  every  boy  that  he 
will  not  fall  a  victim  to  the  cigarette  habit. 

In  the  case  of  a  child  under  twelve,  and  in  many  cases 
with  an  older  child,  the  mother  is  justified  in  keeping 
close  watch  of  his  pockets  both  with  eyes  and  nose,  and 
of  all  places  where  he  keeps  his  personal  belongings. 
While  many  boys  are  told  they  must  not  smoke  cigarettes, 
very  few  of  them  have  any  real  understanding  of  the 
kind  of  injury  they  bring  to  themselves  by  so  doing. 
A  discovery  of  the  tobacco  will  often  open  the  way  for 

1  W.  A.  McKeever,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  School,  Education, 
Vol.  29,  p.  154. 

2  Rowe,  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child,  p.  90. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  139 

a  serious  talk  and  an  earnest  appeal  to  the  boy  by  the 
mother,  even  though  one  has  previously  been  made.  The 
maintenance  of  confidence  between  parent  and  child  is 
always  the  safest  way.  The  habit  of  smoking  is  one 
which  may  be  practiced  entirely  away  from  home  and 
hence  concealed  from  the  parents  for  a  long  time.  In 
those  unfortunate  cases  when  the  boy,  refusing  to  accept 
or  understand  the  attitude  of  his  parents,  continues  to 
deceive  and  disobey  them  by  the  secret  use  of  tobacco, 
prompt  confiscation  of  the  injurious  article  at  all  times 
and  seasons,  followed  by  drastic  punishment,  will  be  the 
kindest  thing  you  can  do  for  him. 

Society.  While  the  danger  just  touched  upon  is  con- 
fined for  the  most  part  to  the  boy,  I  want  to  say  a  word 
about  an  entirely  different  condition  which  pertains  more 
largely  to  the  girl.  The  outcome  in  this  case  may  not  be 
so  serious,  yet  it  is  far  from  desirable.  There  is  a  tend- 
ency for  girls  in  this  period,  especially  those  who  live  in 
cities,  to  despise  their  childhood  and  to  join  too  early 
in  the  social  dissipations  of  their  elders.1  In  a  former 
chapter  reference  was  made  to  an  unwise  effort  to  keep 
the  child  young  after  the  normal  time,  with  possible  injury 
to  his  development.  Here  we  have  the  other  extreme. 
The  general  question  of  how  much  time  should  be  given 
to  "society,"  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  that  term,  has 
become  a  real  problem  to  every  thoughtful  woman  of 
today.  When  this  problem  comes  to  involve  the  young 
and  developing  daughter  it  assumes  an  added  seriousness 
and  cannot  safely  be  ignored.  When  a  child  mingles 

1  Fritz  Koch,  Elementary  School  Teacher,  Vol.  9;  Hall,  Adoles- 
cence, Vol.  i,  p.  382. 


140 


STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 


much  with  adults,  he  or  she  comes  to  assume  adult  ways 
and  to  become  sophisticated.  Frequent  dancing  parties, 
theaters,  and  all  sorts  of  artificial  excitement  rob  the 
growing  school  girl  of  health  and  of  the  simple  girlish 
charm  which  belongs  to  this  period  of  life.  Often  she  is 
encouraged  in  foolish  notions  of  dress  and  is  allowed  to 
wear  clothing  which  is  entirely  unsuitable  to  her  years, 
and,  in  fact,  to  any  years,  since  much  of  the  so-called 
fashionable  women's  clothing  is  neither  useful  nor  beau- 
tiful. But  surely  the  clothing  of  the  growing  girl  should 
be  as  simple  and  should  offer  as  little  restraint  to  the  body 
as  possible.  Many  little  girls  are  overdressed  and  it  is 
generally  the  vanity  of  the  mother  that  is  responsible  for 
it.  To  be  fashionable  means  to  them  more  than  to  be 
refined.  It  is  pitiable  to  see  little  girls  robbed  of  the  free 
life  and  the  simple  plays  of  childhood  and  either  forced 
or  allowed  to  force  themselves  into  conditions  for  which 
they  are  not  prepared. 

Real  Dangers.  In  connection  with  this  aping  of 
adults,  which  is  always  bad,  there  is  more  likely  to  be 
a  certain  forcing  of  the  attention  of  sexes,  the  over-stimu- 
lation of  thought  and  emotion,  late  hours,  unwholesome 
refreshments,  and  introduction  of  wrong  ideals,  and  a 
distraction  from  things  of  real  value.  Here,  again,  it  is 
the  mother  alone  who  can  make  and  keep  things  right. 
The  girl  herself  has  little  experience  from  which  to  draw 
lessons  of  modesty  and  simplicity.  She  cannot  know  the 
dangers  which  attend  the  lack  of  these  qualities.  The 
mother  who  does  know  of  these  dangers,  and  who  still 
allows  or  encourages  her  daughter  to  actions  or  habits 
pot  suitable  to  her  age  and  perhaps  not  to  any  age,  makes 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  141 

a  serious  mistake.  Many  mothers  have  found  it  to  be  a 
fatal  mistake.  You  can  control  the  clothing  of  the  daugh- 
ter by  furnishing  her  with  only  such  garments  as  you 
know  to  be  adequate  for  warmth  and  freedom,  and  (in 
your  judgment)  appearance.  Simplicity  and  suitableness 
in  dress  will  help  greatly  in  keeping  the  manners  and 
thoughts  simple  and  pure. 

Summing  Up.  In  summing  up  the  duties  of  the  mother 
to  her  child  during  this  period  of  his  life,  it  will  be  useful 
to  consider  a  few  questions  selected  from  a  long  list  which 
Dr.  Rankin  has  suggested  as  being  applicable  to  all  par- 
ents. If  any  of  these  questions  must  be  answered  in 
the  negative  it  indicates  the  existence  of  conditions  which 
will  operate  against  the  child's  development : 

1.  Is  the  food  eaten  by  the  child  simple,  varied,  well- 
cooked,  eaten  at  regular  times  ? 

2.  Is  the  underwear  always  changed  at  night? 

3.  Is  woolen  material  worn  next  the  skin  in  winter, 
and  are  the  girl's  clothes  suspended  from  the  shoulders? 

4.  Does  the  child  always  breathe  through  the  nose  ? 

5.  Does  the  child  from  six  to  eight  get  eleven  hours 
of  sleep  daily?     Does  the  child  from  nine  to  eleven  get 
ten  hours?    From  twelve  to  fourteen,  nine  hours? 

6.  Does  he  sleep  in  a  cool,  well-ventilated  room  ? 

7.  Does  he  always  have  the  best  possible  light  when 
reading,  and  carefully  avoid  facing  the  light? 

8.  Is  he  encouraged  to  quickness  and  accuracy  of 
movement  at  home  ? 

9.  Are  games  of  various  sorts  played  at  home? 

10.  Does  he  always  hear  carefully  enunciated  English 
at  home? 


142  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

11.  Is  he  generally  kept  from  emotional  excitement, 
such  as  theaters,  parties,  etc.  ? 

12.  Does  he  stand  erect  and  take  good  posture  when 
walking  ? 

8.     PARENT  AND  TEACHER 

Thus  far  the  effort  has  been  made  to  lay  emphasis  upon 
the  duty  of  the  mother  in  regard  to  the  home  life  of  the 
child.  Before  closing  the  chapter  it  will  be  well  to  ask 
to  what  extent  the  mother  may  hope  to  be  of  service  in 
bettering  the  conditions  which  surround  the  child  at 
school.  There  is  a  great  shrinking  on  the  part  of  most 
mothers  from  anything  like  what  may  be  termed  inter- 
ference in  matters  outside  of  their  sphere.  This  feeling 
is  natural  and  is,  I  think,  a  sufficient  guarantee  that  what- 
ever is  done  in  this  line  will  be  done  carefully  and  tact- 
fully. The  relation  of  the  home  and  school  involves  many 
delicate  points. 

Parent-Teachers'  Associations.  On  this  account  it  has 
occurred  to  many,  including  both  parents  and  teachers, 
that  this  relation  would  be  made  more  helpful  through 
organization  than  if  left  to  individual  initiative  and  judg- 
ment. In  an  increasingly  large  number  of  cities  and  towns 
there  exist  what  are  known  as  Parent-Teachers'  Associa- 
tions. As  the  name  suggests,  such  organizations  include 
the  parents  of  any  particular  district  and  the  teachers  in 
the  school  of  the  district.  Regular  meetings  are  held  in 
the  schoolhouse.  Questions  of  mutual  interest  to  parent 
and  teacher  concerning  the  good  of  the  children  are  dis- 
cussed. Such  an  organization  has  infinite  possibilities  for 
good  in  a  community.  By  means  of  such  an  organiza- 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  143 

tion  the  schoolhouse  may  and  in  many  cases  has  become 
a  social  center,  having  a  separate  room  for  its  use, 
equipped  with  comfortable  chairs,  library,  piano,  stage 
and  curtains  for  school  and  neighborhood  dramatics,  con- 
certs, and  lectures,  and  offering  adequate  provision  for 
social  gatherings.1 

Individual  Parents.  While  a  proposed  cooperation  be- 
tween parents  and  schools  can  be  accomplished  more  easily 
through  an  organization  than  individually,  yet,  in  the 
absence  of  such  an  organization,  individual  mothers  can 

1  A  brief  account  of  the  details  of  how  one  school  house  became 
a  social  center  may  be  helpful.  A  few  ladies  of  the  district  called 
upon  the  principal  of  the  building  and  secured  her  cooperation  in 
the  movement.  Written  invitations  were  sent  put  through  the  chil- 
dren to  each  mother  in  the  district  for  a  meeting  on  a  certain  day. 
Through  the  help  of  the  city  superintendent,  school  was  dismissed 
upon  that  day  one-half  hour  earlier  than  usual.  Talks  were  given 
at  this  meeting  by  the  superintendent,  the  principal  and  one  or  two 
of  the  mothers.  The  object  of  the  organization  (to  promote  a  closer 
relation  between  home  and  school)  was  fully  explained.  A  simple 
constitution  was  presented  and  adopted.  A  small  membership  fee 
was  fixed  upon.  After  this  regular  meetings  were  held  once  a 
month.  Topics  of  mutual  interest  to  parents  and  teachers  were  dis- 
cussed. Light  refreshments  were  always  served  by  a  special  com- 
mittee. Through  the  instrumentality  of  the  association  money  was 
raised  to  place  athletic  equipments,  such  as  swings,  slides,  etc.,  upon 
the  school  grounds.  Up  to  this  point  the  place  of  meeting  had  been 
in  one  of  the  schoolrooms.  A  request  was  sent  to  the  school  board 
to  allow  the  use  of  the  third  floor  of  the  building  for  a  neighbor- 
hood hall  and  social  center.  This  request  was  granted  and  the 
school  board  shared  with  the  Parent-Teachers'  Association  the 
expense  of  adequately  fitting  and  furnishing  the  hall.  The  room 
has  a  seating  capacity  of  about  four  hundred.  It  is  also  used 
as  an  assembly  room  for  the  pupils  of  the  school.  It  is  equipped 
with  a  stage  large  enough  to  hold  fifty  persons;  also  with  comfort- 
able chairs  and  tables,  book  cases,  curtains,  etc.  A  kitchen,  with 
gas  stove,  cupboard  and  tables,  is  attached  to  the  main  hall;  also  a 
convenient  cloak  room.  The  work  of  the  association  is  divided 
among  a  large  number  of  committees,  thus  saving  any  one  group 
from  excessive  labor  and  interesting  a  large  number  of  mothers. 
The  new  hall  was  opened  with  a  general  reception  to  the  fathers  and 
mothers  of  the  district.  From  time  to  time  there  are  given  here 
concerts,  school  dramatics,  lectures  and  social  gatherings. 


144  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

help  in  many  ways.  The  teachers  in  our  schools  are  many 
of  them  young,  they  are  constantly  changing,  and  they 
have  their  hands  full  in  looking  after  the  general  order 
and  instruction  of  their  crowded  classes.  Besides  this, 
teachers  are  likely  to  be  a  little  timid  about  suggesting 
changes  which  involve  the  expenditure  of  time,  care  and 
money  by  the  school  board,  upon  whom  they  depend  for 
the  stability  of  their  positions.  Suggestions  of  needed 
changes  involve  criticism  upon  the  existing  order  of 
things,  and  the  teacher  who  ventures  to  make  such  sug- 
gestions is  in  danger  of  being  considered  a  bit  trouble- 
some, with  the  possibility  of  her  resignation  being  asked 
for. 

School  Boards.  Shall  we  look,  then,  to  the  members 
of  our  school  boards  to  take  care  of  our  schoolhouses  ? 
It  is  a  regrettable  fact  that  our  school  boards  are,  for  the 
most  part,  composed  of  busy  men  who  find  it  impossible 
to  give  to  the  care  of  the  school  buildings  the  personal 
supervision  which  is  required  in  order  to  keep  them  in  the 
best  hygienic  condition.  Is  any  stronger  proof  of  the 
truth  of  this  statement  needed  than  the  figures  already 
given  as  to  the  deterioration  in  the  health  of  our  public 
school  children? 

Let  us  consider  then,  very  briefly,  some  of  the  hygienic 
conditions  of  the  ordinary  schoolhouse  in  which  the 
mother  may  properly  interest  herself  and  which  she  may 
hope  to  improve. 

School  Conditions.  In  the  lighting  of  a  schoolroom 
the  seats  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  light  shall  fall 
upon  the  pupils  from  the  rear  or  the  left  side,  or  from 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  145 

both,  if  possible.1  But  the  children  should  never  sit  so 
as  to  face  the  light,  no  matter  how  good  other  conditions 
may  be.  If  the  lighting  is  badly  arranged,  the  eyes  will 
suffer.  Care  of  the  eyes  will  involve  a  knowledge  of  the 
size  of  the  print  of  the  various  text-books  which  the 
children  use.  If  it  is  too  fine  the  eyes  will  suffer  from 
this  cause. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  keep  the  air  of  the  schoolroom  as 
pure  as  it  should  be.  Children  who  spend  much  time  in 
bad  air  are  drowsy,  stupid  and  tired.  Schoolrooms  are 
sometimes  contaminated  by  impure  air  from  damp  base- 
ments and  leaky  water  closets.  Such  conditions  are 
fraught  with  great  danger  to  all  children  and  especially 
to  those  who  may  be  delicate  or  whose  nervous  vitality 
is  low. 

The  room  should  always  be  ventilated  during  school 
hours,  and  it  is  better  to  have  the  air  come  in  from  the 
top  of  the  windows;  but  at  recess  or  when  the  room  is 
empty  the  windows  should  be  freely  opened  both  above 
and  below.  The  temperature  should  range  between  65° 
and  70°.  The  walls  of  the  schoolroom,  at  least  those 
portions  which  are  on  a  level  with  the  eyes  of  the  pupils, 
are  nearly  always  covered  with  blackboards.  This  is  det- 
rimental to  the  eyes.  Professor  Rowe  suggests  the  ad- 
visability of  covering  the  large  expanse  of  black  wall  with 
white  curtains,  which  may  be  pushed  back  when  the  boards 
are  in  use.  Such  a  service  might  be  performed  by  the 
mothers  of  the  district,  each  one  taking  a  portion  to  make 
and  keep  clean. 

The  floor  of  the  schoolroom  is  a  problem — not  usually 

1  S.  H.  Rowe,  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child,  p.  n. 


146  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

to  the  janitor,  to  be  sure,  but  to  the  teacher  and  superin- 
tendent. Even  if  it  is  kept  clean  as  a  whole,  there  are 
usually  cracks  where  dirt  accumulates.  In  one  case  where 
the  dirt  from  the  cracks  of  a  schoolroom  floor  was  ana- 
lyzed it  was  found  to  contain  germs  of  twenty  different 
diseases.  If  the  floor  is  carefully  swept  once  each  day 
after  having  been  strewn  with  chopped  straw  soaked  in  a 
weak  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  (one  pound  to  four  or 
five  gallons  of  water),  those  germs  will  be  destroyed.  A 
better  plan  is  to  have  all  cracks  filled,  and  kept  filled. 

The  matter  of  the  water  supply  is  very  important.  A 
simple  test,  which  any  mother  can  apply,  is  to  secure  a 
portion  of  the  drinking  water  in  a  bottle,  take  it  home 
and  drop  a  lump  of  loaf  sugar  into  it.  Let  it  stand  by 
the  window  for  twenty- four  hours.  If  at  the  end  of  that 
time  the  water  is  not  clear  it  should  not  be  used.1  Under 
these  circumstances  you  may  be  able  to  have  the  water 
tested  by  a  practical  chemist  and  so  trace  the  pollution  to 
its  source.  As  to  drinking  cups  and  towels,  hygienic 
safety  insists  that  they  be  individual.  Many  states  have 
already  passed  laws — and  others  are  following — to  abolish 
the  common  drinking  cup,  in  which  lurk  germs  of  colds, 
fevers,  and  more  serious  diseases,  which  sometimes  are 
the  cause  of  untold  suffering  and  death.  No  mother 
who  understands  the  seriousness  of  the  situation — as  I 
hope  all  mothers  are  rapidly  coming  to  do — will  consider 
any  inconvenience  too  great  in  securing  and  maintaining 
consistent  individuality  in  the  school  drinking  cup. 

These  things  and  many  others  which  are  of  a  more 
personal  nature  suggest  the  great  desirability  of  a  regular 

1  S.  H.  Rowe,  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child,  p.  149. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  147 

school  physician  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  inspect  the  build- 
ings with  the  view  to  discovering  general  unhygienic  con- 
ditions and  any  signs  of  communicable  disease. 

The  subject  of  play  has  already  been  spoken  of.  A 
great  desideratum  for  the  school  equipment  of  the  present 
day  is  a  place  for  play,  both  outdoors  and  indoors.  It  is 
to  be  hoped  that  in  the  near  future — and  the  mothers  can 
help  to  hasten  the  day— our  school  playgrounds  will  be 
fitted  up  with  modern  gymnastic  apparatus,  and  there  will 
be  at  least  one  large  room  indoors  for  basket-ball  and 
other  health-giving  exercise. 

Records.  We  have  discussed  in  a  former  chapter  the 
importance  of  records  as  an  aid  to  child  study.  It  may 
be  useful  here  to  take  for  comparison  two  specific  records 
of  children  at  about  the  close  of  the  period  which  has  been 
considered — one  of  them  a  girl  of  twelve;  the  other,  a 
boy  of  eleven.  The  girl  selected  is  somewhat  less  favored 
than  the  boy,  but  her  case  may  be  none  the  less  useful 
for  comparison. 

REPORT  ON   DELICATE  GIRL1 

Fidgety.  Suffers  from  headaches.  Needs  spectacles. 
Age  twelve  years.  Sixth  grade.  Head  small,  well-shaped, 
no  ridges,  circumference  19.5  inches.  Face:  Features 
well  formed,  good  proportion.  Ears,  good.  Nose,  good. 
Palate,  well-shaped.  Size,  slight,  57  inches  tall.  Bal- 
ance, mobile,  fidgety.  Expression  bright ;  intelligent  eye- 
movements;  good  eyes,  move  well  in  looking.  When 
looking  at  a  coin  18  inches  from  eyes,  eyes  converge 

1  Frances  Warner,  The  Nervous  System,  p.  181. 


148  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

slightly.  Hands :  Held  out  well  and  promptly.  Physical 
health :  Pale,  thin,  weight  70  pounds.  Otherwise  healthy. 

School  report :  Works  well  in  school.  Regular,  except 
when  sick  with  headache.  Complains  of  eyes  aching.  Is 
fond  of  reading. 

General  report  on  child:  Small  head,  bright  mentally, 
likely  to  remain  so.  Eyes  should  be  examined.  Prob- 
ably needs  convex  glasses  for  hypermetropia  (near-sight- 
edness), the  use  of  which  may  help  to  keep  off  headaches. 
Requires  much  sleep. 


REPORT  ON   A   BOY 


Age,  eleven  years.  Place  in  school,  seventh  grade. 
Circumference  of  head,  twenty-two  inches.  No  ridges 
on  head.  Eye  openings  normal.  Mouth  and  lips  medium 
in  thickness.  Ears  medium,  complete,  slightly  outstand- 
ing. Nose  symmetrical  and  shapely.  Palate  medium, 
slightly  pointed.  Front  teeth  crowded.  Height,  56^ 
inches.  Weight,  87^/2  pounds.  Balance  of  body  good. 
Stands  erect.  Expression  bright  and  cheerful.  Eye  in- 
telligent and  thoughtful.  Good  tone  about  eyelids.  No 
bagginess  anywhere.  Eyes  follow  object  sharply.  Head 
moves  with  eyes.  Head-balance  perfect.  Arms  level 
when  extended.  Left  hand  falls  slightly  after  a  pro- 
longed extension.  Sight  and  hearing  good.  Response 
accurate  and  active.  Good  color  in  face  and  lips.  School 
standing  nearly  perfect  in  all  branches.  Especially  good 
in  arithmetic.  Reports  in  regard  to  application  perfect. 
Has  practically  never  missed  a  day  at  school.  Body  and 
mind  under  control. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  149 

QUESTIONS  FOR  USE  IN  CLUB  STUDY 

1.  Summarize  the  characteristics  of  the  period  from  seven  to 
twelve  years. 

2.  From  what  sources  do  dangers  to  health  seem  to  come? 

3.  What  does  Mr.  Hall  say  about  this  period? 

4.  What  use  can  you  make  of  the  tables  of  height,  weight,  and 
chest  measure  for  this  period? 

5.  What  is  said  about  the  increase  in  size  of  the  different  por- 
tions of  the  body? 

6.  What  is  further  said  about  the  value  of  play? 

7.  What  is  said  of  eye-troubles  at  this  time?    Of  the  ears?    Of 
the  nose? 

8.  What  teeth  may  be  expected  at  this  time? 

9.  Prepare  a  report  on  the  number  and  the  condition  of  the  teeth 
of  one  child  of  this  period. 

10.  What  should  the  mother  learn  from  the  child's  posture  and 
carriage  ? 

11.  What  may  be  learned  about  a  child  while  he  sleeps? 

12.  What  other  troubles  may  come  at  this  time? 

13.  To  what  is  the  nervous  system  compared? 

14.  Quote  Dr.  Rankings  thought  on  this  point. 

15.  What  is  said  of  cigarette  smoking? 

16.  Cite  examples  of  children  being  injured  by  over  dress,  parties, 
night  entertainments,  late  hours  and  the  like. 

17.  What  are  some  of  the  things  which  the  mother  may  do  to 
help  in  the  child's  school  life? 

18.  How  can  you  test  the  school  water  supply? 

19.  What  are  the  questions  which  Dr.  Rankin  suggests  asking  of 
parents  ? 

20.  Describe  a  typically  healthy  child,  (b)  a  nervous  child.    If  pos- 
sible take  an  actual  child  in  each  case. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  CHILD  FROM  SEVEN 
TO  TWELVE  YEARS 

i.    POINTS  OF  CONTACT  BETWEEN   MOTHER  AND  CHILD 

In  the  present  chapter  we  are  to  consider  some  phases 
of  the  mental  development  of  the  child  between  the  ages 
of  seven  and  twelve.  In  order  to  make  the  scope  of  the 
study  as  broad  as  possible,  and  to  touch  upon  the  large 
number  of  ways  in  which  the  influence  of  the  mother  can 
be  made  effective,  it  will  be  necessary  to  group  certain 
forms  of  behavior  which,  on  the  surface,  seem  to  have  no 
special  connection.  All  the  conditions  treated,  however, 
have  this  feature  in  common;  namely,  they  offer  present 
problems  to  the  mother.  In  a  gathering  together  of  the 
results  of  recent  investigation  and  interpretation,  it  is 
hoped  there  will  be  suggestions  for  the  successful  solving 
of  a  few  of  these  problems. 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that,  while  the 
general  development  during  this  period  is  likely  to  be  slow, 
it  will,  in  the  case  of  a  normal  child,  be  regular.1  The 
outer  world  brings  its  daily  stores  of  material  for  sensa- 
tion, and,  little  by  little,  as  the  mind  learns  to  interpret 
these  sensations,  they  become  the  foundation  for  ideas, 
judgments  and  reasoning. 

1  Irving  King,  Psychology  of  Child  Development,  p.  181 ;  Kirk- 
patrick,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  p.  17. 

150 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  15! 

The  Child's  Questions.  One  very  prominent  role 
played  by  the  child  is  that  of  the  questioner.1  His  ques- 
tions are  constant  and  varied,  and  the  mother  sometimes 
comes  to  associate  the  very  appearance  of  the  child  with  a 
big  interrogation  point.  It  is  quite  the  proper  thing  to  say 
at  this  point  that  these  youthful  questions  should  be  an- 
swered carefully  and  sympathetically,  and  of  course  many 
of  the  questions  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  make  such 
advice  practical.  A  large  proportion  of  the  child's  knowl- 
edge must  come  to  him  through  the  answers  to  questions, 
and  if  he  is  laughed  at  or  scolded  for  asking  them,  or  if 
the  answers  are  indefinite  or  incorrect,  the  effect  upon  the 
child's  mind  will  be  disastrous.  But  there  is  no  doubt  that, 
through  the  original  incentive  of  a  desire  for  knowledge, 
many  children  come  to  bombard  their  parents  with  use- 
less and  trivial  questions,  and  it  is  often  the  duty  of  the 
mother  to  attempt  at  least  to  secure  some  kind  of  dis- 
crimination in  questioning.  Otherwise  she  may  be  tempted 
to  meet  the  stereotyped  question  with  a  stereotyped  "I 
don't  know/'  While  such  a  reply  is  true  in  many  cases, 
the  habit  of  using  it  indiscriminately  weakens  the  child's 
respect  for  his  parent  and  he  comes  to  suspect  either  her 
veracity  or  her  intelligence.  It  is  far  wiser  for  the  mother 
to  point  out  how  many  cases  there  are  in  which,  if  he 
stopped  to  think,  he  could  answer  his  own  question. 

Influence  of  School  Life.  Many  of  these  questions  are 
brought  home  from  school,  and  are  a  pointed  indication 
of  how  strongly  the  work  of  the  school  is  impressing  the 
child's  mentality.  His  mental  tastes  and  inclinations  can 
be  discovered  through  his  reaction  to  his  various  school 

1  King,  Psychology  of  Child  Development,  p.  173. 


152  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

studies.  If  the  mother  will  note  the  various  signs  which 
appear  in  this  connection  and  carefully  record  them,  they 
will  assist  both  her  and  the  child  as  he  grows  older.  There 
is  no  way  in  which  one  may  study  the  child's  mental 
development  and  the  effect  of  his  school  work  upon  this 
development  so  well  as  by  visiting  the  school.  A  child 
tells  whole  volumes  about  himself  during  one  of  those 
class  periods.  Then  the  teacher  often  knows  things  about 
the  child  which  are  unknown  to  the  mother,  and  it  is  very 
fortunate  if  mother  and  teacher  stand  to  each  other  in 
the  relation  of  personal  friendship.  Through  this  per- 
sonal friendship  the  teacher  comes  to  know  the  child 
better  and  is  able  to  help  the  mother  in  many  ways.  Many 
parents  have  found  it  a  good  rule  never  to  allow  a  child 
to  pass  through  the  hands  of  a  teacher  without  enter- 
taining that  teacher  in  the  home  at  least  once. 

Companions.  In  this  connection  it  will  be  fitting  to 
say  a  few  words  upon  the  subject  of  companions.  Dur- 
ing the  period  under  consideration,  especially  its  latter 
part,  the  social  instinct  has  been  developing.  The  child 
has  built  up  for  himself  a  goodly  constituency  in  the  way 
of  companionship.  It  was  said  that  the  companionship 
of  the  young  child  was  not  a  serious  problem.  But  when 
he  begins  to  go  to  school  it  is  time  to  know  who  his 
companions  are. 

He  is  really  being  educated  by  them  now,  for  the  in- 
stinct of  imitation  is  insistent,  and  his  companions  are 
his  models.  Do  not  be  deceived  by  surface  indications, 
and  consider  good  manners  as  the  all  important  thing. 
The  child  whose  manners  seem  rough  may  at  heart  be 
manly  and  true  or  womanly  and  sincere,  while  the  child 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION 


153 


of  social  polish,  either  boy  or  girl,  may  have  low  ideals 
and  hypocritical  tendencies.  Your  full  quota  of  tactful- 
ness  is  needed  just  at  this  point. 

It  seems  commonplace  to  say  that  the  mothers  of  a 
given  neighborhood  are  responsible  for  the  morals  of 
the  children,  and  yet  it  repeatedly  happens  that  the 
mothers,  who  themselves  have  high  ideals,  are  ignorant 
or  careless  of  the  moral  tone  which  prevails  among  the 
children  in  the  very  group  of  which  their  own  children 
form  a  part.  The  ultimate  results  of  bad  companion- 
ship upon  the  character  of  a  child  can  hardly  be  estimated. 
The  immediate  results  often  fall  most  heavily  upon  the 
public  school.  Many  a  teacher  has  been  overcome  with 
anxiety  and  worn  out  in  trying  to  cope  with  some  phase 
of  immorality  in  school,  which  never  could  have  ap- 
peared if  the  mothers  had  been  on  duty.  Every  mother 
should  ask  herself  the  question,  "Do  I  know  the  moral 
tone  of  the  children  with  whom  my  own  child  associates?" 
It  is  not  possible  to  keep  the  child  from  meeting  objec- 
tionable children  at  school  or  on  the  street.  We  are  so 
much  a  part  of  our  environment  that  we  cannot  separate 
ourselves  from  it,  even  if  we  were  inclined  to  do  so;  but 
it  is  possible  and  vitally  important  to  prevent  our  children 
from  becoming  intimate  with  those  who  would  corrupt 
their  morals.  The  mothers  should  hold  themselves  as 
stewards  of  the  moral  tone  of  their  neighborhood,  and 
be  ready  always  to  render  strict  account  of  their 
stewardship. 

Stories  Told  by  the  Mother.  Another  and  very  impor- 
tant way  in  which  the  child  is  helped  in  his  mental  and 
moral  advancement  during  these  years  is  through  the 


154  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

stories  which  are  told  and  read  to  him.  "There  is  a 
world  into  which  children  may  enter  and  find  noble  com- 
panionship. It  is  the  world  of  books.  Let  your  boy 
escape  for  a  time  from  the  meanness  of  the  boy  across 
the  street,  and  let  him  roam  the  woods  with  Hiawatha, 
sail  the  seas  with  Sinbad,  build  stockades  with  Crusoe, 
fight  dragons  with  Jason,  joust  with  Galahad;  let  him 
play  at  quoits  with  Odysseus,  and  at  football  with  Tom 
Brown.  These  are  playmates  who  will  never  quarrel  with 
him  nor  bully  him,  but  from  whom  he  will  learn  to  be 
brave,  self-reliant,  manly." *•  The  thoughtful  mother 
begins  very  early  with  the  telling  of  stories,  even  before 
the  child  can  understand  all  she  is  trying  to  tell  him. 
The  "story  hour"  is  invaluable,  not  only  for  the  impart- 
ing of  information,  but  for  the  mutual  exchange  of  con- 
fidences and  the  establishment  of  sympathetic  relations 
between  mother  and  child.  "The  hour  after  sunset  is  the 
Sabbath  of  the  day."  Bedtime  is  a  good  place  for  the 
story,  either  told  or  read,  and  Sunday  afternoon  may  be 
made  a  period  of  happiness  to  the  child  instead  of  restraint 
if  he  comes  to  associate  it  with  an  interesting  story. 
"Next  to  evenings,  Sundays  are  the  times  of  the  greatest 
opportunity  in  the  home.  I  know  how  hard  it  is  to 
abbreviate  the  afternoon  nap  for  the  sake  of  the  boy,  but 
it  is  better  to  be  awake  at  some  discomfort  now  than  to 
be  kept  awake  by  anxiety  later."2 

I  wonder  how  many  mothers  have  tried  serializing  a 
long  story?  Some  narratives  lend  themselves  beautifully 
to  this  plan,  especially  the  different  books  of  the  Old 

1  Walter  Taylor  Field,  Fingerposts  to  Children's  Reading,  p.  10. 

2  W.  B.  Forbush,  The  Boy  Problem,  p.  133. 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  155 

Testament.  The  lives  of  the  Old  Testament  heroes  can 
be  divided  into  chapters  and  given  to  the  child  upon 
successive  evenings.  Such  stories  will  prove  both  fasci- 
nating and  helpful. 

The  Child's  Own  Reading.  Following  closely  upon 
the  subject  of  the  mother  reading  to  the  child  is  that  of 
the  child  reading  to  himself,  and  the  question  as  to  when 
he  ought  to  begin  doing  so.  It  is  probably  true  that 
most  children,  when  they  first  begin  to  read  to  themselves, 
select  the  lighter  kinds  of  reading.  If  the  practice  of 
the  mother  reading  to  the  child  overlaps  his  beginning  to 
read  to  himself,  as  it  should,  it  is  a  good  plan  for  her  to 
read  such  books  as  would  present  difficulties  to  the  child 
if  read  alone,  and  to  suggest  other  books  of  a  lighter 
character  which  may  be  read  by  the  child,  between  the 
mother's  reading. 

Mr.  Walter  Taylor  Field,  in  his  Fingerposts  to  Chil- 
dren's Reading,  suggests  an  excellent  course  of  historical 
reading  covering  about  four  years,  in  which  one  of  the 
parents  reads  aloud  from  a  child's  history,  and  the  child 
himself  reads,  during  the  intervals,  light  and  interesting 
stories  referring  to  the  period  which  is  being  covered.  In 
this  way  the  stories  come  to  have  a  new  meaning  because 
the  child  understands  them.  "No  college  course  in  his- 
tory can  ever  give  one  quite  so  clear  and  permanent  an 
impression  as  that  gained  in  childhood  by  the  boy  or  girl 
who  reads  history  in  this  way/'  1  When  a  child  shows 
no  taste  for  books  after  he  has  reached  the  age  when  an 
interest  might  reasonably  be  expected,  the  mother  may 
help  to  implant  one.  The  reading  aloud,  already  men- 

1  Field,  Fingerposts  to  Children's  Reading,  pp.  32,  37. 


156  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

tioned,  will  be  one  way  of  doing  this.  Each  mother, 
knowing  the  child's  disposition,  will  find  a  different  way. 
I  know  of  a  case  where  a  boy  who  had  been  read  to  a 
good  deal  refused  to  read  to  himself  when  the  time  came 
for  him  to  do  so.  The  mother  pondered  long  and  finally 
decided  upon  an  experiment.  The  next  time  the  boy 
committed  a  breach  of  family  discipline,  not  a  very  un- 
usual thing  in  his  case,  she  required  him  to  spend  an  hour 
all  by  himself  in  the  library.  She  had  previously  placed 
several  books  which  she  felt  sure  he  was  capable  of 
reading,  upon  the  library  table.  Nothing  was  said  about 
reading.  At  the  end  of  the  hour  he  was  discovered  deep 
in  one  of  the  books.  This  experiment  was  repeated,  and 
it  was  not  so  very  long  before  the  boy  was  hunting  for 
new  books  to  read  on  his  own  motion.  Eventually  he 
developed  a  taste  for  good  reading. 

This  plan  would  not  succeed  with  all  boys.  Some 
would  come  to  regard  the  library  as  a  prison  and  its  con- 
tents would  seem  distasteful  to  them.  It  only  illustrates 
the  different  treatment  that  is  required  by  different  dis- 
positions. I  believe  that  the  mother  should  allow  no 
variation  to  the  rule  of  always  knowing  what  the  child  is 
reading.  It  may  often  seem  tedious  to  take  the  time  for 
even  a  rapid  glance  through  the  books  or  papers  in  which 
he  is  interested,  but  it  is  worth  while  in  many  ways.  You 
will  be  very  likely  to  secure  good  reading  habits  for  your 
children  if  you  see  that  there  is  always  good  reading 
matter,  and  such  as  is  suited  to  their  ages  and  interests, 
available  for  them  at  home. 

Music.  There  is  another  subject  to  which  attention 
may  profitably  be  called  in  this  connection.  What  use 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  157 

can  the  mother  make  of  music  in  the  training  of  the 
child  ?  It  is  claimed  that  there  are  no  absolutely  unmu- 
sical children,  although  they  vary  greatly  in  this  respect. 
Music  has  an  effect  upon  the  emotional  nature  which  is 
distinctly  uplifting.  If  this  be  granted,  the  mother  surely 
has  a  part  to  perform  in  bringing  this  influence  to  bear 
in  the  right  way.  When  the  mother  is  musically  edu- 
cated herself  she  has  unlimited  resources,  both  through 
her  voice  and  her  ability  to  select  such  instruments  for 
use  in  the  home  as  shall  best  minister  to  and  develop  the 
child's  higher  nature.  Plato  excluded  from  his  ideal  re- 
public all  music  except  that  which  stimulated  courage  and 
nobler  emotions.  The  kind  of  music  which  did  this  was 
gladly  welcomed  as  a  definite  factor  in  developing  strong 
character.  At  the  present  time  it  is  recognized  that  music 
has  a  refining  influence  which  is  particularly  desirable 
at  this  period  in  the  child's  life.  This  influence  ministers 
to  the  happiness  of  the  home  at  all  times.  Music  has 
been  used  as  an  educational  force  in  many  ways  through 
all  time.  Those  mothers  who  have  neither  talent  nor 
education  in  this  important  art  must,  of  course,  depend 
upon  others,  but  the  musical  training  should  not  be 
neglected.1 

2.    SOME  MENTAL  TRAITS  AND  POWERS  OP  THIS  PERIOD 

Bashfulness.  We  are  now  ready  to  consider  a  few 
mental  traits  which  attract  the  mother's  attention  and 
demand  her  thought.  Bash  fulness  is  a  trait  with  which 
some  of  us  have  to  deal.  Baldwin  says  that  the  bash- 
fulness  which  comes  to  the  child  after  the  third  year  is 
a  reaction  of  race  origin.  It  is  not  reflective  but  instinc- 

1  Tanner,  The  Child,  p.  349. 


158  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

tive,  developing  from  fear  up  through  hesitation  to  self- 
consciousness.1  If  not  so  extreme  as  to  cause  the  child 
unhappiness,  it  may  be  safely  ignored.  It  may,  how- 
ever, be  so  extreme  as  not  only  to  cause  unhappiness,  but 
to  react  in  retarding  development.  It  may  even  become 
a  handicap  in  later  years,  if  not  overcome.  If  its  cause 
can  be  discovered  there  will  be  found  some  way  to  con- 
quer it.  Is  the  child  bashful  only  under  certain  circum- 
stances and  with  certain  people?  Is  his  bashfulness 
increased  by  the  fact  that  he  thinks  he  is  not  good-looking 
or  not  well  enough  dressed,  or  not  as  bright  and  talented 
as  some  other  children  ?  Try  to  have  him  meet  these  awe- 
inspiring  persons  and  circumstances  often,  and  under  con- 
ditions which  are  particularly  favorable  to  him.  While 
looks  and  ability  are  hard  to  change,  the  matter  of  cloth- 
ing is  largely  within  the  power  of  the  parent,  and  the 
bashful  child  will  often  be  helped  by  feeling  that  he,  or 
she,  is  well-dressed.  If  the  tendency  is  to  have  few 
friends,  as  is  often  the  case  with  the  bashful  child,  make 
an  effort  to  help  him  in  this  respect.  Here,  as  in  other 
cases,  the  result  may  be  slow  in  coming,  but  will  come 
in  time. 

If  bashfulness  is  persistent,  a  case  cited  by  Baldwin, 
with  its  suggested  treatment,  may  be  worth  consideration. 
He  says :  "The  presence  of  other  persons  is  trying  to  the 
nerves,  there  is  increased  rapidity  in  the  heart  beat,  some 
slight  setting  of  the  blood  to  the  head,  more  rapid  breath- 
ing, general  toning  up  of  the  muscular  system,  a  peculiar 
static  pressing  in  from  the  front  of  the  abdominal  muscles. 

1 J.  M.  Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  p.  206. 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  159 

To  relieve  this  condition,  expand  the  abdomen  outward 
by  a  strictly  muscular  effort  and  at  the  same  time  breathe 
in  as  deeply  as  possible.  It  is  probable  that  this  action 
allows  the  body  to  fall  and  relieves  the  heart  from  arti- 
ficial pressure.  The  increased  heart  action  requires  all 
the  space  it  can  get."  * 

Love  of  Praise.  Another  characteristic  which  affords 
the  mother  great  opportunities  is  the  love  of  praise.  If 
parents  are  always  honest  in  their  praise,  and  do  not 
bestow  it  unless  it  is  deserved,  nothing  but  good  can 
come  from  it.  Professor  Angell  tells  a  story  which  illus- 
trates the  influence  of  praise  upon  the  actions  of  children. 
I  quote  it  partly  by  way  of  warning  (for  it  is  certainly 
not  a  safe  principle  to  adopt),  and  partly  by  way  of  sug- 
gestion. A  certain  task  was  assigned  to  a  group  of  chil- 
dren. When  it  was  finished  the  teacher  said,  "You  have 
done  it  very  badly.  You  must  do  it  all  over  again." 
The  same  task  was  at  a  later  time  assigned  to  a  second 
group  of  children.  They  actually  performed  it  less  well 
than  the  first  group,  but,  for  the  sake  of  the  experiment, 
the  teacher  said,  "You  have  done  this  splendidly,  but  now 
just  try  and  see  if  you  cannot  do  it  a  little  better."  The 
result  was  that  the  improvement  in  the  second  case  was 
infinitely  greater  than  it  was  in  the  first.  Mr.  Forbush 
also  gives  a  bit  of  dialogue  which  carries  with  it  the  same 
idea:  "Your  son  Tom  seems  to  have  gotten  over  being 
round  shouldered.  Every  time  I've  seen  him  lately  he's 
been  standing  up  like  a  man."  "Yes;  after  years  of 
scolding  him  for  his  stooping,  I  tried  a  new  plan.  I  said 

1 J.  M.  Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  p.  214. 


160  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

to  him  one  day,   'Tom,  what  a  magnificent  chest  you 
haveT"1 

Dominant  Interests.  The  subject  of  the  child's  domi- 
nant interests  has  been  a  fruitful  one  for  discussion  of 
late.  Much  effort  has  been  made  to  secure  reliable  data 
with  regard  to  what  these  interests  are.  The  child's 
interests  interpret  his  personality  and  indicate  along  what 
line  his  activities  lie.2  A  knowledge  of  the  origin  and 
nature  of  these  interests  and  how  they  can  be  influenced 
is  of  great  importance  to  the  mother. 

The  first  interests  of  the  child  are  to  get  control  of  his 
environment.3  This  is  shown  while  he  is  still  in  the  cradle, 
as  he  struggles  to  control  his  muscles  and  his  speech  fac- 
ulty. Success  in  these  directions  incites  him  to  still 
greater  efforts.  In  this  way  his  control  is  broadened  and 
his  personality  enriched.  During  the  years  from  two 
until  seven,  the  child  is  physically  active  and  mentally 
questioning.  The  interests  are  narrow.  From  seven  to 
nine,  the  physical  development  being  slower,  there  is  time 
for  more  delicate  motor  adjustments.4  Mentally  the  child 
is  more  interested  in  details  because  more  skillful  and 
more  influenced  by  success  or  failure.  Heretofore  he  has 
been  striving  to  control  himself,  which  constituted  his 
environment.  Now  he  wishes  to  control  his  external 
environment.  From  nine  to  twelve  there  is  usually  in- 
terest in  puzzles  and  collections.  In  his  games  he  tends 
to  the  spirit  of  cooperation.  What  should  be  the  attitude 

1  The  Boy  Problem,  p.  25. 

2  J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p,  75. 

3  M.  V.  O'Shea,  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,  p.  59. 

4  Irving  King,  Psychology  of  Child  Development. 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  l6l 

of  the  mother  towards  the  interests  which  are  here  de- 
veloping? If  the  child  shows  an  interest  in  things  which 
are  good,  and  especially  if  he  is  interested  in  some  par- 
ticular good  thing,  make  it  a  cause  of  great  rejoicing. 
Do  all  you  can  to  encourage  it  even  though  it  should  last 
but  a  few  years  or  even  but  a  few  months.  It  will  not 
only  develop  the  positive  side  of  his  nature,  but  will  tend 
to  preclude  possible  undesirable  interests. 

But  suppose  your  child  has  no  dominant  interest  in 
anything,  being  rather  inclined  to  take  life  as  it  comes 
and  giving  heed  to  the  passing  moment  alone!  Suppose 
that,  as  in  the  majority  of  cases,  he  shows  nothing  but 
ordinary  reactions  to  everyday  surroundings.  Under  these 
circumstances,  first  of  all,  find  out  whether  he  is  culti- 
vating any  interest  of  which  you  are  not  aware.  Such 
interests  sometimes  attract  the  child  on  the  passive  side 
of  his  nature  and  he  may  be  indulging  them  without  any 
formulated  intention  to  deceive.  These  things  may  be 
kept  a  secret  from  you  through  an  instinctive  feeling  of 
parental  disapproval.  I  know  of  one  child  of  this  age 
who  seemed  to  have  no  dominant  interest  but,  upon  inves- 
tigation, was  found  to  be  secretly  reading  undesirable 
literature.  If  the  matter  had  been  carefully  watched, 
and  an  abundance  of  good  interesting  reading  matter 
had  been  provided,  this  condition  might  have  been  fore- 
stalled. 

Find  out,  if  you  can,  what  the  child  cares  for  most  of 
all.  It  may  not  rise  to  the  dignity  of  an  interest,  but  it 
will  be  a  starting  point.  Place  opportunities  for  doing 
certain  things  in  his  way,  thus  using  the  principle  of 
suggestion.  If  one  thing  is  passed  by  try  another,  for  if 


162  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

the  child  is  going  to  have  any  interest,  now  is  the  time  for 
him  to  be  working  at  it. 

The  Instinct  for  Collecting.  As  has  been  said,  this  is 
the  age  for  collecting  things.  Many  children  have  spas- 
modic crazes  in  this  line.  Indeed,  few  escape  the  ten- 
dency. No  mother  who  understands  the  meaning  of  a 
manifestation  of  this  kind  will  look  upon  a  collection  of 
any  kind  as  unworthy.  If  the  child  does  not  begin  to 
make  a  collection  for  himself,  suggest  one  to  him  along  the 
line  of  his  fancy,  if  you  can  find  what  that  is,  and  help 
him  to  start  it.  It  may  be  post  cards,  stamps,  coins, 
badges,  fobs,  banners,  buttons,  autographs,  but  not  bird's 
eggs  or  cigar  tags.  Collection  in  many  of  these  lines  are 
often  exceedingly  valuable  from  both  the  standpoint  of 
art  and  of  history.  I  know  a  young  man  who  by  the  sale 
of  a  valuable  collection  of  stamps,  put  himself  through 
college.  There  may  be  a  tendency  to  certain  kinds  of 
motor  activity.  In  that  case  working  with  tools  may 
arouse  an  interest.  The  child  may  be  musical.  If  so,  he 
will  probably  want  to  take  lessons  upon  the  piano,  man- 
dolin, or  violin.  Lessons  in  drawing  or  painting  may  also 
be  helpful.  If  the  interest  is  for  something  alive,  pro- 
vide different  kinds  of  animals.  Some  one  will  be  found 
to  take  them  off  your  hands  after  they  have  served  their 
purpose.  Working  in  electricity  has  proved  a  most  valu- 
able and  stimulating  interest  for  many  boys.  When 
manual  training  and  domestic  science  are  generally  taught 
in  our  public  schools  many  problems  of  seeming  lack  of 
interest  will  be  solved.  As  has  just  been  said,  the  par- 
ticular interests  may  be  dropped  in  a  comparatively  short 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  163 

time,  but  their  developing  effect  upon  the  character  will 
remain. 

Bad  Interests.  The  child  who  spontaneously  develops 
bad  interests  should  be  the  mother's  constant  care.  No 
methods  can  be  too  searching  to  discover  what  form  these 
interests  are  taking.  No  time  can  be  too  early  to  break 
them  up.  If  any  mother  will  read  Swift's  chapter  on 
Criminal  Tendencies  in  Boys;  Their  Cause  and  Function* 
she  will  be  satisfied  that  while  a  good  environment  may 
help,  it  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  cure.  Among  these  bad 
interests  may  be  bad  reading,  bad  companions,  cheap  thea- 
tres, secret  use  of  tobacco,  petty  thieving,  and  others  less 
flagrant  but  destructive  to  the  child's  best  development. 
If  the  mother  rs  watchful  these  tendencies  cannot  go  very 
far  without  discovery.  If  the  child  transgresses  family 
regulations  which  are  already  well  known,  it  ought  not  to 
be  hard  to  know  what  to  do.  But  when  the  bad  habit  is 
broken  up,  do  not  forget  to  rush  in  the  good  ones.2  Or, 
better  yet,  crowd  out  the  bad  by  establishing  new  and  bet- 
ter ones.  Do  not  stop  with  one,  crowd  in  a  half  dozen  if 
possible,  and  do  not  rest  satisfied  until  you  are  quite  sure 
that  the  new  interests  have  become  firmly  established. 

Caution.  There  is  one  general  caution  to  be  observed 
in  regard  to  children's  interests.  Beware  of  blocking  out 
in  advance  too  definitely  what  you  wish  your  child  to  be 
interested  in  and  what  you  wish  him  to  be.  There  is  a 
wide  difference  between  tentative  suggestion  and  arbitrary 
determination.  Some  children  are  so  constructed  that 
they  will  yield  themselves  to  the  will  of  the  parent  almost 

1  E.  J.  Swift,  Mind  in  the  Making,  p.  38. 

2  James,  Talks  to  Teachers;  S.  H.  Rowe,  Habit  Formation,  p.  214. 


164  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

passively.    This  will  do  no  harm  for  short-lived  interests, 
but  be  careful  that  the  child  chooses  his  own  life  work. 

The  Child's  Idea  of  Money.  The  next  problem,  and 
one  which  may  lie  along  the  line  of  the  interests,  is  the 
child's  idea  of  money.  How  shall  we  teach  our  children 
its  real  value  ?  How  shall  we  make  them  understand  that 
the  care  and  use  of  it  is  important  and  yet  that  it  is  not 
the  most  important  thing.  All  children  like  money.  The 
instinct  of  ownership  and  the  wish  to  control  environment 
is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  liking,  apart  from  the  pleas- 
ure derived  from  the  things  which  it  will  procure.  Chil- 
dren differ  greatly  in  their  use  of  money.  While  a  few 
are  inclined  to  be  miserly,  most  are  little  spendthrifts. 
There  is  danger  in  giving  too  much  money  to  children. 
There  is  also  danger  in  withholding  it  too  strictly.  Much 
may  be  said  against  paying  children  for  doing  the  ordinary 
home  duties,  and  yet  this  has  some  advantage  over  giving 
them  a  regular  allowance,  as  it  teaches  them  that  money 
does  not  come  without  effort.  A  better  plan,  where  it  is 
possible,  is  to  have  a  child  earn  his  spending  money  by 
doing  odd  jobs  for  others  than  members  of  the  family,  for 
this  puts  him  into  the  actual  conditions  that  obtain  in  life. 
By  this  is  meant  that  there  should  be  actual  merit  in  the 
service,  as  there  often  is  not  in  the  case  of  "home  made" 
employments.  In  other  words,  the  child  learns  that  there 
must  be  "value  received"  or  else  he  loses  his  position  to  a 
competitor  whose  services  are  of  greater  value  to  the 
employer.  One  of  the  parents  should  advise  as  to  the 
spending  of  such  money  as  the  child  may  earn;  otherwise 
extravagant  habits  are  likely  to  be  acquired.  One  of  the 
most  fortunate  conditions  for  a  boy  is  that  in  which  he  is 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  165 

able  to  help  out  the  family  income  by  means  of  his  earn- 
ings. The  moral  effect  upon  him  is  excellent;  the  spirit 
of  altruism  is  developed  in  him,  and  he  ceases  to  regard 
money  simply  as  a  means  of  gratifying  selfish  wants. 
Harm  is  sure  to  result  from  a  child's  feeling  that  what  he 
earns  is  so  much  for  extra  indulgence  and  that  he  may 
spend  it  upon  himself  in  foolish  and  extravagant  ways. 
Even  where  the  circumstances  of  the  family  may  warrant 
such  expenditures,  indulgence  in  them  tends  to  encourage 
an  already  dangerous  tendency. 

Where  the  child  is  too  young  or  not  fitted  to  earn  any- 
thing outside  of  the  home,  try  one  of  the  following  ways : 
Give  him  a  regular  sum  each  week  out  of  which  there  are 
certain  things  for  which  he  must  provide,  such  as  school 
supplies,  the  Sunday-school  contribution,  and  possibly 
some  smaller  items  in  his  clothing.1  This  is  done  on  the 
ground  that  he  is  a  part  of  the  family  and  is  rendering  to 
the  family  such  general  service  as  is  within  his  power. 

Another  excellent  plan  is,  while  expecting  the  ordinary 
duties  of  the  home  to  be  done  without  remuneration,  to 
pay  for  certain  extraordinary  duties,  if  well  and  patiently 
done.  As  soon  as  the  child  is  able  to  keep  simple  accounts 
(which  he  will  be  able  to  do  at  about  nine  or  ten  years — 
perhaps  younger)  furnish  him  with  his  own  private  ex- 
pense book  in  which  he  shall  keep  a  careful  account  of  all 
his  receipts  and  expenses.  It  is  a  mistake  to  bring  up  a 
child  from  hand  to  mouth,  on  the  subject  of  money,  as  is 
done  when  he  is  obliged  to  make  a  separate  request  for 
each  portion  of  money  he  receives. 

1  Earl  Barnes,  Studies  in  Education,  p.  62. 


166  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

3.    MEMORY 

There  is  a  mental  process  which  will  be  considered  here, 
not  because  it  is  confined  to  this  period,  but  because  there 
seem  to  be  some  ways  in  which  it  responds  to  external 
stimuli  during  these  years  more  readily  than  at  any  other 
time.  I  refer  to  the  memory.  Observation  shows  that 
this  faculty  is  more  retentive  during  the  early  school  years 
than  at  any  other  period  of  life,  and  the  school  courses  are 
usually  arranged  with  this  fact  in  view.  While  we  may 
never  understand  all  that  memory  means  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  child,  we  recognize  the  great  importance  of  its 
cultivation  and  are  constantly  looking  for  suggestions  as 
to  how  its  effectiveness  may  be  enlarged  and  its  strength 
increased. 

Mrs.  Cabot,  in  her  chapter  upon  the  ethical  value  of 
memory,  calls  it  the  power  which  holds  our  lives  together 
and  helps  us  to  live  with  our  whole  selves.1  We  depend 
upon  it  for  our  connection  with  the  past  and  the  future. 
Through  it  we  glean  the  largest  harvest  from  our  experi- 
ence. As  to  our  moral  life,  memory  is  the  center  of  it. 

Let  us  consider  briefly  the  physiological  side  of  memory 
before  considering  its  possibilities  in  the  intellectual 
sphere.  The  signs  of  memory  during  the  first  months  of 
the  child's  life,  if  they  exist,  are  very  uncertain.  The 
semi-conscious  manifestations  of  it  which  the  infant  dis- 
plays can  hardly  be  classed  with  the  conscious  efforts  of 
an  older  child  to  fix  words  and  ideas  permanently  in  his 
mind.  Recent  psychology  rejects  the  idea  of  memory  as 
a  general  elementary  faculty  which  can  be  exercised  and 
trained  like  the  muscles  of  the  arms  or  legs. 

1  Ella  Lyman  Cabot,  Every  Day  Ethics,  p.  400, 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  167 

The  Functions  of  Memory.  The  value  of  the  old 
fashioned  verbal  memory  work,  intended  to  strengthen  it, 
is  seriously  questioned.  The  function  of  memory  is  really 
two- fold :  First,  it  is  the  storing  away  of  impressions  or 
experiences,  and  second,  it  is  the  process  of  restoring  to 
consciousness  some  particular  impression  or  group  of  im- 
pressions. The  number  of  impressions  which  can  be  put 
into  this  storehouse  of  the  mind  depends  upon  the  reten- 
tiveness  of  the  nervous  tissues.  All  conscious  experience 
(that  is,  anything  which  we  have  ever  known)  brings 
about  some  modification  of  the  cortical  tissues.  The  cor- 
tical impression  is  a  physical  process,  hence  the  conscious 
and  physical  processes  are  intimately  connected.1  It  is 
thought  that  no  impression  once  made  upon  the  brain  is 
ever  eradicated.  Although  it  may  be  entirely  forgotten  as 
an  individual  fact,  it  has  an  influence  upon  succeeding 
brain  processes.  The  second  function  of  memory,  that  of 
restoring  to  consciousness  a  particular  impression,  is  also 
made  up  of  two  different  processes.  The  first  process  is 
attention;  i.  e.,  the  mind  focalizes  itself  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  desired  impression  lies.  If  the  act  of  com- 
mitting to  memory  is  in  progress,  the  mind  will  be  focal- 
ized upon  the  impression  already  made.  This  impression 
will  be  repeated  until  it  becomes  fixed.  One  writer  refers 
to  this  repetition  in  memorizing  as  the  mind  imitating 
itself  until  the  impression  becomes  fixed.  The  second 
process  is  association.  One  never  recalls  an  isolated  fact.2 
When  you  want  to  remember  something  you  do  not  pop 
your  mind  down,  now  here,  now  there,  like  a  boy  spearing 

1 J.  R.  Angell,  Psychology,  p.  237. 

2  Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations. 


168  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

fish.  You  feel  your  way  along  from  one  thing  to  another 
until  finally*  you  reach  the  thing  which  you  are  seeking. 

How  to  Strengthen  the  Memory.  The  only  way  in 
which  the  mother  can  help  the  child's  memory  in  its  first 
function  (if  she  Can  help  it  at  all)  is  by  keeping  him  in 
good  physical  condition.  She  may  help  the  second  func- 
tion of  the  memory  to  just  such  an  extent  as  she  can 
teach  the  child  (a)  to  focalize  his  attention,  and  (b)  to 
utilize  readily  his  power  of  association.  A  failure  at  either 
of  these  points  will  affect  the  strength  of  the  memory.  It 
follows  from  the  above,  that  the  memory  will  be  best 
along  the  line  of  the  chief  interests.  But  it  will  be  good 
psychology  to  teach  the  child  to  fix  his  attention  upon 
things  in  which  he  is  not  interested  as  well  as  upon  those 
in  which  he  is  interested.1  In  the  case  of  the  normal  child, 
the  mother  notices  very  early  that  the  link  of  -memory  is 
being  established  and  that  the  impressions  of  one  day  are 
being  carried  over  into  the  next.  She  also  notices  the 
difference  in  the  endowment  of  children  as  regards  the 
memory. 

Whenever  a  child  shows  that  he  possesses  an  unusually 
vigorous  memory,  there  is  generally  a  tendency  to  show 
it  off.  The  child  is  encouraged  to  commit  long  pieces, 
both  in  and  out  of  season,  and  to  speak  them  upon  all  pos- 
sible occasions.  The  parent  who  indulges  this  very  nat- 
ural impulse  will  live  to  regret  it,  if  sufficiently  intelligent 
to  see  results.  In  the  showing  off  process  other  less 
desirable  qualities  are  developed  and  the  general  mentality 
is  not  improved.  It  is  the  child  with  the  poor  and  weak 
memory  with  whom  we  should  work  to  secure  the  learn- 

1  Rowe,  Habit  Formation,  p.  218, 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  169 

ing  of  the  long  pieces.  But  because  most  of  us  work 
along  the  line  of  least  resistance,  we  do  the  former  instead 
of  the  latter.  If  you  are  satisfied  that  your  child  has  a 
good  memory,  let  him  alone.  His  ordinary  school  work 
will  develop  it  normally.  But  if  you  have  reason  to  think 
that  the  child's  memory  is  below  the  average,  there  are 
ways  in  which  you  can  help  to  gain  for  it  greater  efficiency. 
Memory  Drill.  While  memory  drill,  as  such,  is  some- 
what discredited,  there  is  still  a  use  to  be  made  of  facts 
in  memorizing,  and  repeated  effort  to  focalize  the  atten- 
tion and  utilize  the  powers  of  association  will  have  a  tend- 
ency to  crystallize  into  habit  just  as  any  other  often 
repeated  effort  does.  There  is  a  stupendous  array  of 
facts,  an  exact  verbal  hold  upon  which  will  be  of  incal- 
culable value  to  any  child  in  after  life.  The  mother  can 
be  of  great  help  by  simply  drilling  the  child's  verbal 
memory  upon  groups  of  these,  while  he  is  at  the  retentive 
age,  as  he  is  during  these  years.  Use  care  in  the  selection 
of  the  facts.  Your  own  experience  of  what  has  been 
most  useful  will  help  you  to  choose  wisely.  Explain  the 
meanings  as  you  go  along.  Use  names,  dates,  selections 
of  poetry  and  prose,  and  especially  portions  of  the  Bible. 
Exercise  both  the  visual  and  the  auditory  memory.  To 
strengthen  the  association  of  ideas,  read  a  story  to  the 
child,  and  have  him  repeat  it  in  his  own  words.  Memory 
will  come  in  time  to  do  what  we  patiently  insist  upon  its 
doing.  Remember,  too,  that  there  is  a  law  of  the  mind 
by  which  the  things  which  are  first  learned  take  precedence 
in  the  persistence  of  their  hold.  The  mother  who  is  will- 
ing to  do  even  a  little  of  this  sort  of  work  will  spare  her 
child  the  humiliation  of  coming  to  adult  years  with  the 


I7o  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

possible  acknowledgment  that  "the  only  date  he  can  re- 
member is  the  date  of  his  own  birth  and  he  sometimes  has 
to  stop  and  figure  that  out."  It  goes  without  saying  that 
in  any  effort  to  help  the  memory,  the  child  must  pay  strict 
attention.  It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  habit  of 
inattention  is  of  itself  the  chief  factor  in  a  poor  memory. 
Mrs.  Cabot's  Definition.  I  have  already  referred  to 
Mrs.  Cabot's  excellent  definition  of  memory  as  "the  power 
which  holds  our  lives  together."  Before  leaving  the  sub- 
ject I  must  give  you  her  answer  to  the  question,  "How 
can  one  teach  himself  not  to  forget?"  Although  you  will 
find  her  suggestion  more  helpful  when  the  child  is  a  little 
older,  it  will  be  useful  even  now.  Mrs.  Cabot  says, 
"Observe  your  own  method  of  recalling  or  fixing  in  your 
mind  any  important  topic.  Explain  this  to  the  child  and 
see  how  much  of  it  he  can  utilize.  Show  him  how  to 
classify  what  he  naturally  does  remember.  Teach  him  to 
use  the  following :  i.  Forethought.  2.  Resolute  interest. 
3.  Careful,  systematic  recall.  With  all  this  there  should 
be  the  ability  to  put  aside  for  the  time  all  that  will  inter- 
fere with  the  definite  aim."1 

4.    CHILDREN'S  FAULTS 

Under  the  influence  of  modern  ideas  and  deductions, 
many  things  which  were  formerly  classed  as  faults  in 
children  are  now  considered  but  the  normal  and  reason- 
able manifestations  of  the  laws  of  nature.  But,  even  after 
due  allowance  has  been  made  for  the  expected,  there  are 
some  manifestations  which  are  persistent  and  puzzling. 
These  for  want  of  a  better  name  we  will  call  faults. 

1  Mrs.  Cabot,  Every  Day  Ethics,  p.  400. 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  171 

These  may,  for  convenience,  be  divided  into  two  classes; 
first,  those  which  will  be  outgrown;  second,  those  which 
if  not  dealt  with  definitely,  will  become  worse  and  perma- 
nently injure  the  character.  While  all  will  agree  that 
there  are  those  two  classes  of  faults,  perhaps  all  will  not 
agree  as  to  where  to  make  the  division.  Again,  it  is  some- 
times difficult  to  tell  just  what  permanent  fault  any  certain 
manifestations  may  crystallize  into. 

The  first  class  of  faults  referred  to,  though  not  serious, 
are  often  very  disagreeable.  Sometimes  they  require 
great  patience  on  the  part  of  the  mother,  and  sometimes 
a  definite  absence  of  patience  on  the  part  of  the  mother 
has  a  salutary  effect.  Among  these  so-called  transient 
faults  I  would  place  many  phases  of  bad  manners.  Lazi- 
ness, and  one  phase  of  untruth  fulness,  are  faults  which 
will  probably  disappear  with  advancing  years.  Petty 
meanness,  unkindness  and  teasing,  are  things  which  will 
probably  be  crowded  out  in  the  enlargement  and  enrich- 
ing of  the  growing  life.  But  disobedience,  violent  temper, 
selfishness,  and  general  untruth  fulness  cannot  safely  be 
ignored  by  the  parent.  Each  indulgence  in  these  vices 
makes  it  harder  to  overcome  them,  and  the  resulting  effect 
upon  character  is  far-reaching. 

Bad  Manners.  As  to  bad  manners,  at  this  age  they 
come  as  natural  to  many  children  as  breathing.1  It  seems 
to  relieve  the  child,  both  mentally  and  physically,  to  be 
rough  and  rude.  The  most  careful  training  apparently 
counts  for  nothing.  This  condition  is  an  outcropping  of 
the  natural  savagery  already  referred  to.  Any  child  with 
a  reasonable  amount  of  self-respect  will  outgrow  this 

1  Forbush,  The  Boy  Problem,  p.  10, 


172  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

phase  of  his  life  if  he  is  living  in  an  environment  of  good 
manners.  The  good  teaching,  and  more  especially  the 
good  example,  will  have  its  effect. 

Laziness.  The  indisposition  to  exertion  which  passes 
for  laziness,  is  often  more  a  matter  of  physical  than  of 
mental  temperament.  If  carried  to  excess,  the  mother 
should  find  out  if  there  is  some  physical  condition  which 
causes  it.  I  have  already  mentioned  constipation  as  a 
condition  to  be  guarded  against.  Its  existence,  causing 
backache,  and  various  other  aches,  will  account  for  much 
apparent  laziness.  A  low  tone  of  the  nervous  system  is 
another  frequent  cause.  When  a  child  is  growing  rapidly, 
more  of  his  vitality  is  being  used  in  tissue-building  than 
we  sometimes  realize.  On  this  account  the  child,  without 
knowing  why,  finds  himself  without  energy  or  initiative. 
If  no  physical  cause  is  to  be  found,  possibly  the  laziness 
is  a  habit  into  which  the  child  has  fallen.  It  has  been 
pointed  out  that  every  child  is  much  better  for  the  stimu- 
lus which  comes  from  activity.  In  fact,  normal  develop- 
ment is  hardly  possible  without  it.  If  the  mother  is 
satisfied  that  the  child  has  no  real  reason  for  his  lassitude 
she  may  invent  ways  to  stimulate  him,  especially  if  a  clue 
has  been  secured  as  to  his  interests,  for  the  apparently  lazy 
child  is  usually  the  child  with  no  dominant  interest.  The 
mother  should  see  to  it  that  the  child's  ordinary  duties  are 
not  neglected  during  this  so-called  "lazy"  period,  even 
though  it  should  require  much  more  effort  on  her  part  so 
to  do  than  to  perform  them  herself.  A  yielding  to  this 
inertia,  even  though  there  is  a  physical  cause  for  it,  will 
induce  bad  habits,  both  physical  and  mental,  which  may 
never  be  overcome  in  later  life. 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  173 

Apparent  Untruthfulness  Through  Imagination.  I 
have  spoken  of  a  form  of  untruthfulness  which  need  not 
cause  uneasiness  to  the  parents.  The  form  referred  to 
is  that  which  grows  out  of  a  vivid  imagination.  Children 
who  possess  such  a  power  of  mind  are  likely  to  give  it  full 
play  when  describing  things  which  they  have  seen,  and 
they  often  use  it  to  describe  things  which  they  have  not 
seen.  It  is  unfortunate  that  so  few  parents  understand 
this  mental  quality  and  its  possibilities.  Imagination  has 
been  described  as  the  power  to  make  anything  real.1  It 
gives  foresight.  We  need  it  in  whatever  we  undertake, 
for  it  has  the  power  of  rounding  into  perfection  what  we 
can  only  see  in  part  with  the  other  faculties.  It  has  a 
supreme  moral  value.  The  child  whose  imagination  has 
been  rightly  cultivated  will  never  laugh  at  a  deformed 
person,  neither  will  he  injure  property.  His  imagination 
presents  to  him  the  object  in  its  perfection  and  his  mind 
is  satisfied  with  what  he  thus  pictures.  The  imagination 
lends  itself  readily  to  the  aid  of  the  other  cognitive  or 
intellectual  processes,  notably  the  memory  and  the  reason- 
ing power.2  An  imaginative  child  is  naturally  a  happy 
child.  A  happy  child,  if  not  spoiled  in  the  making,  will 
grow  into  a  happy  man  or  woman,  and  the  world  has 
great  need  of  happy  people.  But  this  imagination  must 
be  controlled. 

The  Mother's  Part.  Listen  to  the  stories  of  your  imagi- 
native child.  Question  him  sympathetically.  Do  not 
reprove  or  punish  him  unless  you  are  sure  that  the  ele- 
ment of  self-interest  or  ultimate  personal  advantage  is 

1  Mrs.  Cabot,  Every  Day  Ethics,  p.  397. 

2  J.  R.  Angell,  Psychology,  pp.  215,  216. 


174  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

entering  into  his  statements.  If  such  is  the  case  some- 
thing is  wrong,  and  the  condition  will  be  best  considered 
under  the  head  of  general  untruth  fulness.  But  do  not 
confuse  statements  which  come  as  the  result  of  vivid 
imagination,  with  inaccuracies  which  are  the  result  of 
inattention  and  mental  laziness.  The  sluggish  mind  should 
be  stimulated  to  attention,  but  a  vivid  imagination  is  a 
gift  from  God. 

Petty  Meanness  and  Teasing.  Petty  meanness  was 
mentioned  as  one  of  the  traits  which  would  probably  dis- 
appear with  advancing  years.  If  this  characteristic,  with 
its  accompanying  faults,  is  carried  to  an  extreme  it  may 
become  downright  cruelty,  and  in  this  serious  phase  will 
require  careful  attention.  As  has  already  been  said,  much 
childish  meanness  is  merely  the  struggle  for  control  of  the 
environment,  and  will  pass  away  as  soon  as  better  methods 
for  so  doing  are  discovered.  But,  even  admitting  that  the 
outcome  will  be  satisfactory  for  the  given  child  himself, 
attention  should  be  called  to  the  effect  of  the  teasing  upon 
the  child  who  is  teased.  I  have  in  mind  a  case  of  two 
brothers  who  differed  in  age  about  two  years.  The  older 
one  was  a  persistent  tease.  No  act  of  the  younger  boy 
(who  by  the  way  was  exceedingly  sensitive)  was  allowed 
to  pass  without  ridicule.  The  mother  was  busy  with  other 
things  and  took  little  notice  of  the  situation  unless  things 
culminated  in  an  actual  fight.  The  boys  are  young  men 
now,  and  the  teaser  is  such  no  longer,  but  has  become  a 
person  of  amiable  disposition  and  fine  manners.  But  the 
younger  boy  is  still  hampered  in  word  and  action  by  an 
insistent  fear  of  ridicule.  The  inference  is  justifiable  that 
this  sensitiveness  if  not  actually  implanted  by  the  action  of 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  175 

his  older  brother,  when  both  were  little  fellows,  was  at 
least  greatly  strengthened  by  that  early  experience.  If  the 
mother  has  reason  to  forecast  any  such  outcome  as  this 
just  mentioned,  she  should  not  hesitate  to  terminate  the 
teasing,  even  though  drastic  measures  are  required. 

Disobedience.  Among  the  more  serious  faults,  the 
first  is  disobedience.  Obedience  to  law  is  one  of  the 
fundamentals  of  the  universe,  and  parents  make  a  great 
mistake,  which  it  will  be  difficult  to  rectify,  if  they  do  not 
begin  right  at  their  own  hearthstone  to  teach  this  law  to 
their  children.  The  opinion  has  been  expressed  that  the 
enforcement  of  obedience  endangers  the  individuality  of 
the  child.  The  exact  opposite  is  the  case.  Absence  of 
law  always  entails  confusion,  and  individuality  will  not 
be  an  outgrowth  of  such  a  condition.  No  child  of  the 
age  we  are  now  considering  is  mentally  equipped  to  make 
laws  for  himself.  He  must  accept  the  laws  imposed  by 
those  who  have  had  more  experience  than  he  and  more 
opportunities  for  observing  the  operation  of  law.  There 
is  no  surer  way  to  teach  self-control  than  the  enforcement 
of  obedience,  for  a  child  must  have  self-control  in  order 
to  obey  and  especially  to  obey  promptly.  To  enforce 
obedience  is  one  of  the  ways  we  have  of  teaching  self- 
control  to  the  child  who  is  too  young  to  be  reasoned  with. 
A  child  who  lives  harmoniously  under  the  laws  of  his  own 
home  is  in  a  fair  way  to  live  harmoniously  under  the  laws 
of  society,  when  the  time  comes  for  him  to  leave  the  home. 
Probably  many  parents,  while  admitting  that  obedience 
is  a  most  desirable  thing  in  the  home,  have  found  it  diffi- 
cult to  establish  it  with  their  own  children.  I  believe  the 
question  of  how  to  enforce  obedience  in  the  home  is  one 


176  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

of  the  most  personal  and  delicate  of  all  subjects  connected 
with  child  study. 

The  suggestions  given  here  are  the  result  of  a  some- 
what extended  experience  combined  with  observation  of 
cases  where  obedience  was  not  enforced  at  all,  or  when 
the  wrong  spirit  was  allowed  to  prevail  in  enforcing  it. 
It  must  not  be  overlooked  that  just  in  proportion  as  the 
ultimate  end  of  obedience  is  emphasized  (as  well  as  the 
immediate  end,  which  is  the  comfort  and  convenience  of 
society)  in  that  same  degree  is  the  necessity  of  obedience 
emphasized.  Obedience  may  be  secured  in  two  ways: 
First,  by  precept  and  appeal.  Second,  by  punishment.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  when  the  first  is  successful,  the 
second  is  not  necessary.  It  is  almost  apparent  that  the 
very  young  child  is  more  likely  to  respond  to  the  second 
incentive  than  to  the  first.  Among  the  general  principles 
which  have  been  found  effective  in  the  establishment  of 
obedience  are  the  following: 

1.  Be  consistent,  firm  and  reasonable  in  your  require- 
ments of  obedience.     Do  not  demand  one  thing  one  day 
and  another  thing  the  next  day ;  do  not  yield  your  position 
if  you  know  you  are  in  the  right,  even  though  you  find  it 
a  difficult  one.    Above  all,  be  sure  that  your  standard  of 
conduct  is  reasonable. 

2.  Wherever  natural  punishments  will  follow  the  act 
of  disobedience,  allow  them  to  do  so;  in  those  cases  where 
the  logical  punishment  does  not  follow  of  itself  or  is  not 
prompt  enough,  make  your  own  punishments  as  nearly  in 
accord  with  the  natural  laws  as  possible.     For  example, 
suppose  that  the  growing  boy  or  girl  declines  to  go  to  bed 
at  the  proper  hour  at  night.    Nature's  punishment,  namely, 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  177 

a  tired  body,  sluggish  brain,  poor  recitations  at  school,  and 
possible  ultimate  loss  of  health,  are  evils  so  unconnected 
with  the  child's  range  of  experience  as  to  lack  immediate 
moral  force.  The  mother  can  supply  the  necessary  and 
timely  moral  force,  and  at  the  same  time  make  the  punish- 
ment logical  by  requiring  the  child  to  spend  several  of  his 
active  hours  in  bed  the  following  day.  The  quarrelsome 
child  should  be  banished  to  the  loneliness  of  his  own  room 
on  the  ground  that  only  those  may  mingle  with  the  family 
who  help  to  keep  the  family  peace.  The  natural  punish- 
ment for  quarreling  is  rejection  from  one's  social  group. 
Here  the  mother  should  act  for  the  social  group  of  the 
child. 

3.  Always  make  the  motives  for  obedience  high.  It 
is  true  that  in  the  case  of  the  very  young  child  obedience 
must  be  enforced  upon  the  ground  that  it  is  the  parents' 
wish.  But  little  by  little  the  reason  why  the  parent  wishes 
it  can  be  brought  in,  and  what  began  as  mere  passive 
obedience  to  the  parent's  wishes  eventuates  in  active 
cooperation  with  the  parent's  wishes.  An  example  of  this 
kind  of  obedience  is  attendance  at  religious  services  such 
as  church  and  Sunday  school.  When  the  child  is  small 
and  unable  to  think  and  reason  for  himself  he  goes 
because  he  is  taken  or  compelled  to  do  so.  As  the  child 
grows  older  and  understands  why  his  parents  believe  in 
religious  services,  he  assumes  the  responsibility  of  attend- 
ance at  such  services  by  an  independent  mental  and  moral 
process.  The  main  requirement  in  a  case  of  this  kind  is 
that  the  parents  themselves  are  thoroughly  sincere  in  their 
own  religious  beliefs;  that  their  own  doing  of  religious 
duties  is  impelled  by  the  highest  ideals.  Other  things 


178  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

being  equal,  the  normal  child  will  respond  to  high  moral 
ideals  when  they  are  presented  with  absolute  sincerity. 

4.  From  the  very  start,  and  especially  as  the  child 
advances  in  years,  keep  in  mind  that  all  arbitrary  enforce- 
ment of  obedience  should  look  to  the  ultimate  end  of  indi- 
vidual self-control.  For  example,  a  child  refrains  from 
stealing  cookies  for  fear  of  punishment.  But  in  so  doing 
he  finds  that  he  can  control  himself  and  is  started  upon 
the  road  to  self-control  from  higher  motives. 

The  aim  of  the  parent  should  be  that  the  obedience 
which  he  requires  to  his  personal  self  and  his  own  author- 
ity lead  out  to  obedience  to  the  higher  laws  of  nature  and 
of  God.  In  other  words,  the  inner  laws  in  the  child's 
own  soul  should  take  the  place  of  the  outer  laws  imposed 
upon  him  by  his  parents.  Hence  we  see  that  obedience  in 
the  home,  although  in  a  sense  a  temporary  virtue,  is 
nevertheless  a  foundation  stone  upon  which  is  built  up  the 
character  in  which  inheres  obedience  to  and  cooperation 
with  the  eternal  laws  of  the  universe. 

In  the  following  chapter  will  be  found  a  further  refer- 
ence to  obedience  somewhat  along  this  same  line  but  from 
the  standpoint  of  habit  and  the  training  of  the  will. 

Anger.  The  next  trait  to  be  considered  is  one  which 
has  puzzled  and  tried  many  parents.  It  is  the  tendency  to 
give  way  to  outbursts  of  bad  temper.  Anger  is  both 
physical  and  psychical.  It  undoubtedly  dates  back  to  an 
earlier  stage  of  development,  when  it  arose  as  a  substitute 
for  reflex  responses  of  the  organism  to  pain.1  It  is  the 
result  of  very  sudden  organic  changes  and  is  rightly  con- 

!Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Adolescence,  Vol.  I,  p.  355;  E.  J.  Swift, 
Mind  in  the  Making,  p.  37. 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  179 

sidered  the  most  actively  unsafe  of  any  of  the  faults.  In 
its  extreme  manifestations  it  blinds  the  mind  and  incites  to 
action  which  is  almost  unconscious.  Outbursts  of  ten  occur 
without  much  provocation.  But  even  when  there  is  prov- 
ocation, it  is  only  an  injury  to  the  child  to  allow  these 
outbursts  to  go  unnoticed.  The  training  to  overcome  a 
bad  temper  must  be  constant,  consistent,  painstaking  and 
patient.  One  difficulty  in  such  training  is  that  the  child 
often  inherits  his  temper  from  the  parent,  and  like  begets 
like.  It  is  always  fortunate  in  the  case  of  a  quick  temper, 
if  the  parent  from  whom  the  trait  was  not  inherited  can 
be  the  one  to  take  the  dominant  hand  in  helping  to  over- 
come it. 

There  are  three  ways  of  dealing  with  anger.  The  first, 
and  lowest  in  order,  is  to  attract  the  attention  to  some- 
thing else;  the  second  is  by  imposing  the  idea  of  pun- 
ishment; the  third  is  by  arousing  the  idea  of  duty  or 
responsibility.  In  the  case  of  the  young  child,  the  best 
way  to  deal  with  anger  is  in  the  first  way  mentioned, 
namely,  by  diverting  the  attention  into  some  other  channel 
as  soon  as  there  is  a  sign  of  the  approaching  outburst. 
This  requires  a  good  supply  of  foresight  and  mental 
quickness.  If  the  anger  gets  into  full  swing  before  the 
diversion  takes  effect,  it  will  do  no  good  to  attempt  diver- 
sion. Such  an  attempt  is  then  more  likely  to  prove  a 
source  of  added  irritation.  Leave  the  child  entirely  alone 
until  the  storm  has  passed.  If  things  have  been  done 
during  the  outburst  which  require  attention,  the  age  of 
the  child  and  other  circumstances  will  help  you  decide 
what  to  do.  But  this  method  of  diversion  is  only  tern- 


180  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

porary  and  in  a  sense  a  makeshift.  The  root  of  the  matter 
has  not  been  touched. 

In  the  second  case,  whatever  punishment  it  is  thought 
best  to  inflict  will,  of  course,  have  to  be  severe  enough  to 
serve  as  a  sharp  reminder  when  the  impulse  to  anger  is 
felt  again.  But  the  thing  will  never  be  settled  until  the 
child  takes  it  in  hand  himself.  This  can  be  brought  about 
only  by  the  development  of  the  child's  sense  of  duty  and 
responsibility.  When  these  feelings  are  aroused,  the 
child's  own  will  begins  to  act.  This  is  the  one  permanent 
force  which  can  act  effectively  upon  a  fundamental  trait 
like  a  violent  temper.  It  is  surely  a  task  of  great  delicacy 
to  effect  a  proper  adjustment  between  temper  and  the  will 
power  to  control  it.  The  mother  in  her  efforts  to  secure 
this,  must  first  arouse  the  desire  in  the  child  for  self- 
control.  She  should  know  best  how  to  approach  him,  and 
to  what  motives  to  appeal.  She  must  stand  by  him  in  his 
struggles,  encourage  him  when  he  fails  and  help  restore 
confidence  and  courage  for  further  effort. 

All  the  laws  of  the  child's  being  conspire  to  urge  very 
prompt  attention  to  settling  the  matter  of  a  quick  temper. 
If  the  discipline  of  the  home  does  not  accomplish  the  con- 
trol which  is  demanded,  the  severer  discipline  of  experi- 
ence will  have  to  do  it.  No  mother  who  knows  anything 
about  what  that  means  will  be  willing  to  send  her  child  out 
into  life,  knowing  that  he  must  undergo  it. 

Selfishness.  Selfishness  is  another  fault  that  demands 
attention.  This  appears  contemporaneously  with  con- 
sciousness. Children  have  already  been  spoken  of  as 
little  animals,  and  the  selfishness  which  they  exhibit  is  a 
form  of  the  primitive  law  of  self-preservation  springing 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  l8l 

up  within  them.  Gross  forms  of  physical  selfishness  will 
soon  disappear.  The  mother  can  hasten  their  disappear- 
ance, and  guard  against  a  more  refined  and  lasting  form 
of  the  same  trait,  if  she  will  make  it  a  point  to  show  the 
child  upon  every  possible  occasion  that  selfishness  is  not 
only  ugly  but  that  it  "does  not  pay."  In  other  words, 
show  the  child  that  what  was  necessary  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  existence  in  a  former  primitive  state  of  life  will, 
if  indulged  in  at  the  present  time,  work  against  his  high- 
est good.  If  this  is  done,  the  natural  law  of  adaptation  to 
environment  will  cooperate  with  the  higher  ethical  law 
of  unselfishness. 

It  has  been  said  that  an  unselfish  mother  makes  a  selfish 
child.  This  is  an  aphorism  which  expresses  a  broad  truth, 
but  it  is  true  only  if  the  mother  is  indulgent  as  well  as 
unselfish.  Children  must  be  taught  very  soon  to  think  of 
the  rights  of  others.  The  home  is  preeminently  the  place 
in  which  to  teach  this.  The  mother  is  preeminently  the 
one  to  do  it.  But  before  the  mother  can  teach  her  children 
what  are  their  right  relations  in  the  home  she  must  her- 
self have  the  right  idea  of  the  home.  She  should  teach 
her  child  from  the  start  that  he  is  a  part  of  the  home  and 
that  he  owes  it  to  the  home  to  sacrifice  his  comfort  and 
pleasure  for  the  comfort  and  pleasure  of  the  home.  Dr. 
Bascom  expresses  this  thought  very  pertinently  when  he 
says,  "The  first  lesson  of  all  human  life  is  concession  to 
the  lives  of  others.  The  parent  cannot  advantageously 
lift  all  burdens  from  the  children.  The  law  of  sacrifice  is 
good  for  the  child,  as  it  is  for  the  parent.  Children  have 
interests  to  sacrifice  to  the  household  strength.  Search- 
ing and  common  responsibilities  are  the  bracing  atmos- 


182  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

phere  of  a  healthy  home.    Let  love  sink  into  weakness  and 
it  may  appear  in  the  children  as  intolerable  selfishness." 

Love  and  service  should  be  inseparable  terms.  No  child 
was  ever  born  with  so  sweet  and  unselfish  a  disposition 
that  he  could  not  be  made  selfish  by  constant  sacrifice  for 
his  pleasure.  But  most  children  are  not  sweet  and  unself- 
ish and  the  help  of  the  parents  is  necessary  in  order  to 
develop  a  thought  fulness  of  the  rights  and  interests  of 
others.  The  sense  of  justice  which  often  inheres  strongly 
in  a  selfish  child  can  sometimes  be  called  upon  to  prevent 
a  selfish  act.  If  this  sense  of  justice  is  absent,  try  to  instill 
it  as  early  as  possible.  Teach  the  child  unselfishness  in 
the  home,  and  the  spirit  will  remain  with  him  outside  of 
the  home  and  throughout  life. 

5.    TRUTH  AND  UNTRUTH. 

Untruth  fulness  is  the  next  of  the  serious  faults  to  claim 
our  attention.  Mention  has  already  been  made  of  an 
excusable  form  of  uhtruthfulness,  but  we  must  now  con- 
sider that  form  which  has  no  justification,  but  is  a  menace 
to  character.  Truth,  in  the  broad  sense,  is  a  subject  which 
should  have  the  largest  possible  place  in  the  consideration 
of  every  parent.  The  mother  should  begin  early  to  teach 
it,  and  in  doing  this  an  important  prerequisite  is  a  clear 
idea  of  truth  on  her  own  part. 

What  is  Truth?  Truth  is  the  conscious  act  of  making 
a  statement  (whether  made  in  words,  actions,  or  thoughts) 
correspond  with  the  facts.  Untruth  is  the  conscious  act 
of  making  statements  which  do  not  correspond  with  the 
facts.  Truthfulness  is  the  careful  effort  to  convey  the 
right  impression.  It  does  not  demand  literal  accuracy, 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  183 

neither  need  it  run  into  brutal  frankness.  The  child's  first 
and  untaught  attitude  towards  truth  is  of  the  experimental 
order.  He  may  have  some  moral  code  of  his  own,  but  it 
can  hardly  correspond  to  that  of  the  adult.  Most  children 
will  at  first  tell  lies  to  further  their  own  projects  and 
interests.  The  child  shows  his  moral  standards  very  early. 
With  him  things  are  right  if  they  come  out  right.  They 
are  wrong  when  they  come  out  wrong.  In  other  words, 
the  utilitarian  standpoint  is  responded  to  first ;  that  is,  the 
idea  that  truth,  like  honesty,  is  "the  best  policy,"  will 
appeal  to  the  mind  sooner  than  that  truth  is  right  and 
must  therefore  be  followed  at  all  hazards.  The  normal 
child  will  somewhat  later  respond  to  sincere  appeals  for 
truthfulness;  to  the  appeal  to  seek  truth  for  truth's  sake. 
There  is  underneath  all  seeming  self-interest,  an  instinct 
for  truth  which  can  be  counted  upon  as  being  present  in 
every  child. 

Causes  of  Untruthfulness.  Cases  of  untruth  fulness 
can  be  traced  back  to  some  one  of  a  definite  group  of 
causes  or  conditions.  If  the  mother  can  find  out  which 
one  of  these  causes,  or  which  set  of  conditions,  is  the 
impelling  cause  of  the  untruthfulness,  she  will  be  greatly 
aided  in  securing  the  right  attitude  toward  truth  on  the 
part  of  the  child.  These  causes  can  often  be  removed  if 
understood.  Probably  the  most  common  cause  of  lying 
is  the  fear  of  punishment  in  some  form.  Among  other 
causes  are  the  following:  illusions,  mistaken  ideas  as  to 
facts,  inaccuracies  caused  by  mental  laziness,  forgetful- 
ness,  dullness  of  moral  perception,  desire  for  gain,  desire 
for  notice  or  praise,  desire  for  personal  ease.  These  vari- 
ous causes  will  have  to  be  dealt  with  in  entirely  different 


184  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

ways,  and  much  depends  upon  the  natural  disposition  and 
temper  of  the  child.  The  age  of  the  child  must  be  taken 
into  account  also,  although,  as  all  mothers  know,  children 
of  the  same  age  often  show  a  great  difference  in  their 
apprehension  of  moral  truths.  There  are  many  ways  in 
which  the  mother  may  foster  in  her  child  the  truth  loving 
spirit. 

A  Specific  Case.  Let  us  consider  specifically  for  a 
moment  the  untruth  which  is  incited  by  fear  of  punish- 
ment. For  example,  the  child  has  done  something  which 
he  thinks  will  displease  his  parents,  and  result  in  punish- 
ment humiliation,  and  pain.  He  conceals  his  act,  either 
passively  by  not  telling  about  it  when  he  would  naturally 
be  expected  to  do  so,  or  actively  by  positively  denying  it 
when  questioned.  Under  these  circumstances  the  thought- 
ful mother  will  act  slowly.  Possibly  the  offense  was  not 
such  as  to  involve  punishment.  Even  so,  the  child  has 
done  a  wrong  by  telling  the  untruth.  If  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  tendency,  that  is,  the  first  few  times  the 
child  is  guilty  of  the  untruth,  moral  ends  can  be  sub- 
served, and  moral  ideals  remain  unimpaired  by  advice 
rather  than  direct  punishment,  the  mother  will  probably 
be  safe  in  following  such  a  course.  One  of  the  best  ways 
to  proceed  under  these  circumstances  is  to  find  out  about 
the  child's  fault  in  some  other  way  than  questioning  him. 
When  this  is  done,  the  incentive  for  an  untruth  has  been 
removed  from  the  child  and  the  parent  is  free  to  admin- 
ister punishment  without  fear  of  encouraging  untruthful- 
ness.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  persistent  untruth  fulness 
is  itself  a  cause  for  punishment.  In  the 'case  of  young 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  185 

children,  corporal  punishment  has  often  proved  successful 
in  curing  this  fault. 

As  the  child  grows  older,  the  patient  bringing  to  his 
mind  both  by  example  and  precept  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  life  will  bear  fruit  in  truth-telling  even  when 
the  latter  brings  the  dreaded  punishment  or  ridicule.  Fol- 
lowing out  this  thought  there  are  here  given  some  of  the 
ways  in  which  truthfulness  has  been  established  in  the 
home,  and  untruth  fulness  overcome. 

General  Principles.  First :  A  high  standard  of  truth  in 
the  home  will  be  one  of  the  most  efficient  factors  in  form- 
ing a  high  standard  in  character  of  the  child.  Live  the 
truth  before  your  child.  As  parents,  we  are  likely  to  for- 
get how  many  little  conventional  lies  we  fall  into  the  habit 
of  telling  both  in  word  and  in  deed.  The  child,  with  his 
limited  experience,  does  not  realize  the  conditions  which 
seem  to  us  to  call  for  these  things,  and  there  is  to  hirxi  a 
discrepancy  between  precept  and  example.  Society  and 
the  home  would  be  much  better  if  there  were  fewer  of 
these  conventional  deceits. 

Second :  Always  appreciate  and  praise  the  right  course 
in  this  respect,  whether  it  be  in  your  own  home  or  outside 
of  it.  Always  condemn  the  wrong  course,  no  matter  who 
may  be  the  one  who  is  following  it. 

Third:  The  mother  can  accomplish  much  good  work 
incidentally  by  seeing  to  it  that  the  wrong  action  in  her 
own  child  does  come  out  wrong.  In  other  words,  by 
making  the  law  breaker  suffer  the  penalty  of  the  broken 
law  on  all  possible  occasions. 

Fourth :  A  child  who  is  inclined  to  untruthf ulness  can 
often  be  made  truthful  and  dependable  by  being  placed 


186  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

upon  his  honor.  Arrange  the  circumstances  so  that  he 
can  see  definitely  that  he  could  do  either  the  right  or  the 
wrong,  make  him  understand  that  you  trust  him  to  do  the 
right.  If  this  seems  to  fail  in  one  case,  do  not  be  dis- 
couraged, but  try  it  again.  It  has  been  said  that  truthful- 
ness, where  it  has  been  found  fundamentally  lacking,  is 
the  most  difficult  to  teach  of  any  of  the  virtues.  Many 
parents  and  teachers  have  found  this  to  be  the  case.  But 
given  time,  all  good  and  desirable  qualities  can  be  devel- 
oped in  children,  and  no  quality  is  better  or  more  desirable 
than  truthfulness. 

Fifth :  Sometimes  an  untruthful  child  can  be  impressed 
by  an  appeal  to  him  upon  the  ground  of  his  duty  to  others. 
A  mind  which  is  slow  to  develop  a  sense  of  duty  towards 
itself,  will  sometimes  respond  to  the  idea  of  unfairness  in 
his  conduct  towards  his  companions  and  friends. 

Sixth:  The  truth-telling  attitude  can  often  be  gained 
by  asking  the  child  to  think  what  would  happen  if  all 
people  told  lies.  Show  him  how  every  lie  poisons  the 
character  of  the  one  who  tells  it  and  eats  into  the  struc- 
ture of  human  society,  just  as  a  worm  gnaws  away  at  a 
leaf  until  nothing  is  left.  Where  a  child  has  been  untruth- 
ful the  force  of  what  has  just  been  said  will  be  impressed 
upon  him  if  the  mother  refuses  to  believe  what  he  says 
in  regard  to  some  other  matters.  She  can  place  her  action 
upon  the  reasonable  ground  that  since  he  has  told  a  lie  in 
one  instance  he  may  tell  one  in  other  instances,  and  she 
is  not  able  to  judge  in  what  cases  he  may  think  it  best  to 
be  truthful,  and  in  what  cases  untruthful.  There  may  be 
a  limit  of  time  set  during  which  he  is  not  trusted.  After 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION 

that  the  child,  if  he  has  been  perfectly  truthful  in  the 
meantime,  will  again  be  trusted  as  before.  The  situation 
of  finding  himself  not  trusted  when  he  knows  he  is  telling 
the  truth,  will  awaken  the  child  to  a  realization  of  what 
society  as  a  whole  would  be  if  distrust  prevailed  generally, 
and  will  show,  as  perhaps  nothing  else  can,  the  difference 
between  the  solidity  of  truth  and  the  rottenness  of  false- 
hood. We  should  try  to  show  him  that  truth  is  the  reality 
upon  which  all  things  rest.  It  is  what  gives  meaning  to 
speech. 

Seven:  The  negative  side  of  truth  may  sometimes  be 
made  very  strong  in  its  appeal.  That  is,  what  are  the  con- 
sequences of  untruth  fulness?  First,  a  person  who  is 
detected  in  a  lie  is,  as  suggested  above,  distrusted  by 
others.  He  will  be  suspected  even  when  telling  the  truth. 
Second,  the  person  who  tells  lies  to  others  increases  the 
chances  of  others  telling  lies  to  him.  Third,  a  lying  habit 
once  started,  develops  with  wonderful  rapidity,  and  the 
person  who  has  such  a  habit  finds  himself  lying  when  he 
really  does  not  mean  to.  Fourth,  a  person  who  lies  him- 
self will  soon  find  it  impossible  to  believe  in  the  truthful- 
ness of  others. 

But  whatever  is  the  cause  of  untruthfulness,  there  can 
be  found  a  way  to  reach  and  remove  it ;  when  this  is  done, 
there  can  be  established  an  attitude  toward  truth  which 
will  grow  more  and  more  firm  with  the  advancing  years. 
Loyalty  to  truth  is  the  keynote  of  character.  Too  much 
stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  cultivation  of  it.1 

1  Frank  Chapman  Sharp,  Moral  Instruction  for  the  High  School, 
P-  33- 


188  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

QUESTIONS  FOR  USE  IN  CLUB  STUDY 

1.  What  is  the  general  nature  of  the  period  discussed  in  the 
present  chapter? 

2.  How  should  a  child's  questions  be  treated? 

3.  What    should   be   the   mother's    attitude   toward   the   child's 
teacher  ? 

4.  Do  you  know  the  character  and  home  life  of  your  child's 
companions  ? 

5.  What  is  said  about  the  mother's  reading  to  the  child?    What 
of  the  child's  reading  to  himself  ? 

6.  What  is  said  about  the  telling  of  stories? 

7.  What  relation  has  music  to  the  child's  development? 

8.  How  would  you  help  a  bashful  child? 

9.  How  would  you  treat  the  child's  love  of  praise?    What  two 
instances  are  given  to  illustrate  this  point? 

10.  What  is  said  of  a  child's  interests?     Follow  their  develop- 
ment. 

11.  What  can  be  done  when  a  child  seems  to  have  no  dominant 
interest? 

12.  What  can  be  done  for  one  who  has  developed  bad  interests? 
What  caution  is  given  about  interests? 

13.  What  is  said  about  the  child's  idea  of  money?    What  about 
the  use  of  money? 

14.  What  specific  suggestions  are  made  in  this  line? 

15.  What  is  the  two- fold  function  of  memory?    What  two  proc- 
esses are  mentioned  under  the  second  function? 

16.  At  what  period  of  life  is  the  memory  most  retentive?    What 
does  Mrs.  Cabot  call  memory? 

17.  How  can  the  mother  help  the  child's  memory?     Give  Mrs. 
Cabot's  suggestions. 

18.  Into   what  two   general   classes   are   the   faults   of   children 
divided  here? 

19.  Speak  of  the  faults  of  the  first  class. 


THE  MENTAL  CONDITION  189 

20.  Do  you  agree  with  the  idea  of  laziness  expressed  here? 

21.  What  faults  are  placed  in  the  second  class? 

22.  Describe  the  function  of  the  imagination. 

23.  What  is  said  of  disobedience?    Of  bad  temper?    How  would 
you  deal  with  these? 

24.  What  is  said  about  selfishness? 

25.  What  are  some  of  the  causes  of  untruthfulness? 

26.  Mention  some  ways  of  inculcating  truthfulness. 

27.  What  are  Professor  Sharp's  four  points? 


CHAPTER  VI 

CHILD  TRAINING 
i.    THE  PARENTS'  EQUIPMENT  FOR  TRAINING 

We  shall  now  take  up  the  general  subject  of  training, 
from  the  period  of  infancy  to  the  close  of  the  pre-adoles- 
cent  period.  This  discussion  covers  much  that  has  gone 
before,  and  in  some  cases  the  thought  expressed  in  pre- 
vious chapters  may  seem  to  be  repeated.  When  this  is 
the  case,  it  is  because  certain  phases  of  character  are  more 
general  in  their  nature  than  others,  and  their  consideration 
demands  a  broader  treatment  than  has  been  yet  given 
them. 

Are  Parents  Equipped  for  Child  Training?  A  very 
natural  question  to  come  at  the  outset  of  this  discussion 
is  as  to  the  parents'  equipment  for  child  training.  Are  the 
majority  of  parents  fitted  to  bring  up  their  children?  It 
can  hardly  be  denied  that  many  parents  lack  adequate 
equipment  for  this  important  duty.  Of  course  it  would 
be  impossible  to  enumerate  all  of  the  qualifications  for 
complete  and  perfect  parenthood.  No  one  parent  could 
hope  to  possess  them  all.  The  points  mentioned  here  are 
for  the  most  part  those  which  one  would  be  expected  to 
possess,  who  wished  to  make  a  success  of  any  calling 
in  life. 

The  True  Significance  of  the  Home.  Have  you  ever 
stopped  to  think  why  it  is  that  things  are  so  arranged  that 

190 


CHILD  TRAINING  191 

a  child  is  in  the  home  for  practically  a  generation  ?  It  has 
taken  many  centuries  to  make  a  human  being  as  he  is 
today.  Parents  and  children  must  be  many  years  in  the 
home  together  in  order  that  the  essential  spiritual  inherit- 
ance of  the  ages  may  be  passed  on  from  one  to  the  other. 
Your  child,  in  being  born  to  you,  and  in  being  dependent 
upon  you  during  all  these  long  years  of  his  early  experi- 
ence, finds  in  you  the  most  immediate  and  most  important 
link  in  the  chain  which  binds  him  to  his  rightful  inherit- 
ance. Perhaps  it  is  fortunate  for  us  all  that  very  much 
of  this  splendid  accumulation  passes  on  to  our  children  by 
means  of  unseen  forces  over  which  we  have  but  little  con- 
trol. But  even  so,  there  is  much  in  the  lives  of  our 
children  which  we  can  and  should  control,  if  the  relation 
of  parent  and  child  means  anything  at  all.  The  child 
accepts  absolutely  and  without  question  many  things  from 
his  parents.  Among  these  unquestioned  acceptances  are 
his  language  and  his  moral  standards.  It  is  a  generally 
admitted  fact  that  the  person  who  finds  it  necessary  to 
change  his  language  later  in  life  from  the  one  he  origin- 
ally learned,  does  so  with  considerable  difficulty  and  with 
more  or  less  loss  in  efficiency.  It  must  be  the  same  in  the 
case  of  moral  standards.  Aim  to  give  your  child  during 
these  years  of  unquestioning  acceptance  the  highest  moral 
standard  which  has  been  worked  out  for  your  generation 
by  previous  generations. 

Fundamental  Qualities  Needed  for  Child  Training. 
Among  the  fundamental  qualities  for  which  we  look  in 
the  successful  parent  is  intelligence — plain,  everyday  com- 
mon sense.  Thought,  given  liberally  and  when  one  is  at 
her  best,  is  constantly  demanded  by  the  problems  of  child 


192  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

training.  Continuity  and  consistency,  both  in  training  and 
in  general  conduct,  are  necessary  qualities.  If  unusual 
expedients  are  sometimes  required,  they  will  be  more 
effective  if  they  have  consistency  and  continuity  as  a  back- 
ground. A  further  part  of  the  parent's  equipment  is  a 
sense  of  responsibility  for  the  lives  and  conduct  of  the 
children.  Again,  the  parent  needs  an  understanding  of 
the  child's  character  and  individuality.  Last,  but  by  no 
means  least,  we  all  need  a  clear  conception  of  the  object 
or  end  in  view  in  the  training  of  the  child.  The  child 
reveals  himself  very  slowly,  and  the  parent  has  need  to 
be  patient,  and  often  to  suspend  judgment.  Sometimes, 
unfortunately,  the  mother  finds  that  just  when  she  has 
learned  how  to  train  the  child  for  any  special  thing  he 
has  passed  beyond  the  need  of  that  particular  kind  of 
training.  In  other  words,  the  knowledge  which  would 
have  been  of  indefinite  help  to  her  often  does  not  come 
until  the  opportunity  to  use  it  has  passed.  A  good  general 
is  on  the  lookout  for  these  strategic  points  in  his  cam- 
paign, and  will  not  allow  himself  to  be  overreached  with- 
out a  struggle.  The  mother  has  need  of  all  the  qualities 
of  a  good  general  in  her  struggle  to  establish  firmness  of 
character  and  high  ideals  in  the  lives  of  her  children. 

2.    IMITATION  THE  FIRST  TRAINING 

The  earliest  training  of  the  child  is  the  unconscious 
training  which  comes  through  imitation.  At  first  the 
child's  muscles  and  nerves  respond  automatically  to  any 
stimulus  from  outside  of  itself,  whether  of  eye,  ear  or 
touch.  As  the  brain  develops,  and  its  different  parts  begin 
to  work  together,  the  child  becomes  at  least  partially  con- 


CHILD  TRAINING  193 

scious  that  he  is  trying  to  reproduce  what  he  sees  and 
hears.  But  for  some  time  the  unconscious  response  of 
the  senses  to  outward  impressions  continues  to  play  a  large 
part  in  the  movements.  This  training  through  imitation 
never  stops.  No  matter  what  we  may  plan  to  do  for  the 
child  in  later  life  we  will  do  well  to  remember  that  first 
impressions  take  precedence  of  later  ones  in  their  per- 
sistency. What  the  child  sees  and  hears  the  first  few 
years  of  his  life  have  a  tremendous  influence  upon  his 
character.  If  these  things  were  always  what  they  should 
be,  the  training  of  later  years,  which  is  often  so  hard, 
would  be  far  and  away  easier  and  more  successful. 

It  has  just  been  said  that  the  child  begins  life  by 
imitating,  and,  if  Professor  Baldwin  is  right,1  the  instinct 
never  outlives  its  usefulness.  It  is  characteristic  of  all 
mental  growth,  and  seems  to  have  been  carefully  pro- 
vided for  in  the  instinctive  equipment  of  the  child.2  The 
child  imitates  because  he  must.  It  is  one  of  the  laws  of 
his  being. 

What  is  Imitation?  Imitation  seems  to  be  the  uncon- 
scious effort  on  the  part  of  the  child  to  get  himself  into 
harmony  with  his  environment.  It  is  something  like  the 
case  of  water  seeking  its  own  level,  or  the  chameleon 
changing  his  color  to  harmonize  with  the  object  near  him. 
The  child  receives  his  own  first  experience  in  doing  things 
when  he  almost  unconsciously  proceeds  to  copy  the  action 
of  another  person.  So  familiar  are  manifestations  of 
imitation  that  they  often  pass  unnoticed. 

1 J.  M.  Baldwin,  Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  in  the  Race, 
Chapter  XL 

2  M.  V.  O'Shea,  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,  p.  105. 


194 


STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 


The  hand  and  voice  respond  readily  to  this  early  instinct 
of  imitation.  When  the  child  has  once  made  a  conscious 
sound  it  imitates  itself  in  long  drawn  out  monotones. 
The  pursing  of  the  lips  in  response  to  a  similar  action  of 
the  mother  is  a  familiar  example  of  early  imitation. 
Speech  is  learned  by  direct  imitation  both  auditory  and 
visual.  Some  one  has  called  attention  to  the  great  advan- 
tage which  nature  gives  the  child  in  this  psychological 
"short  cut"  to  learning  to  talk.  If  the  child  learned  only 
one  word  at  a  time  and  that  not  until  he  knew  the  mean- 
ing of  it,  he  would  hardly  have  a  working  vocabulary  at 
the  end  of  his  life.  The  imitation  of  the  child  in 
other  ways  than  speech  also  provides  a  direct  method  of 
development. 

Deliberate  Imitation.  But  imitation  soon  passes  out  of 
the  unconscious  stage  and  becomes  a  deliberate  act.  This 
occurs  probably  about  the  sixth  or  seventh  month.  The 
fundamental  character  of  imitation  is  further  emphasized 
by  the  fact  that  repeated  imitative  acts  crystallize  into 
habits.  These  voluntary,  oft  repeated  acts,  become  or- 
ganic and  form  the  foundation  of  memory  and  associa- 
tion. Thus  we  cannot  fail  to  see  how  closely  imitation  is 
bound  up  with  the  very  fiber  of  mentality.  Imitation  is 
not  confined  to  the  realm  of  the  physical.  It  is  a  funda- 
mental social  instinct.  There  is  the  intellectual,  the  emo- 
tional, the  ethical,  and  especially  the  social  imitation.1 
This  latter  is  never  outgrown.  In  fact,  there  are  periods 
in  the  child's  life  when  it  seems  largely  to  control  him. 
Under  its  spell  the  peculiarities  of  his  elders  and  of  his 

1  J.  M.  Baldwin,  Mental  Development  in  Child  and  Race,  Chapter 
XL 


CHILD  TRAINING  195 

companions  are  copied.  Speech,  actions  and  moral  stand- 
ards are  copied.  These  often  become  fixed  and  affect  the 
entire  life.  Much  that  is  supposed  to  be  inherited  come^ 
through  imitation.1 

Parents'  Responsibility  in  View  of  Imitation.  It  is 
often  a  comfort  to  a  mother,  who  has  but  little  time  to 
spend  in  instructing  her  children,  to  know  that  by  her 
example  she  can  give  them  lessons  in  industry,  fidelity, 
cheerfulness,  kindliness,  reverence  and  honesty.  The  re- 
verse side  of  the  picture  is  the  greatest  possible  stimulus 
for  right  action  in  the  mother's  own  life.  From  the  stand- 
point of  the  child,  imitation  is  not  a  mere  copying  process. 
For  him  it  is  attainment,  pure  and  simple,  but  it  often 
seems  as  if  in  this  matter  the  life  of  the  child  were  sim- 
ply going  around  in  a  circle.  Professor  King  states  the 
condition  graphically  and  hopefully  when  he  says  that  the 
child's  life  is  really  a  spiral  affair,  each  completed  round 
bringing  him  a  little  higher  up  through  what  he  has  added 
of  his  own  individuality. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  mother's  responsibility 
in  view  of  this  instinct  in  the  young  child.  But  what  shall 
we  say  of  the  child's  later  imitation  of  the  parent's  char- 
acter? Some  have  maintained  that  if  the  parents  live 
right  before  their  children,  they  have  fulfilled  their  duty 
in  the  way  of  training.  They  contend  that  the  training  of 
a  character  is  so  delicate  a  matter  that  the  safe  way  is  to 
place  a  right  model  before  the  child  and  trust  to  nature 
to  do  the  rest.  The  theory  is  a  good  one  and  the  method 
has  the  advantage  of  being  much  easier  than  the  more 
generally  accepted  one.  Most  parents,  however,  while 

1 J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  149. 


196  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

realizing  how  large  a  part  their  lives  play  in  forming  the 
characters  of  their  children,  are  not  satisfied  to  rest  with 
that.  For  while  imitation  is  always  active,  there  are  other 
forces  which  have  a  part  in  building  the  character  of  the 
child.  The  presentation  of  a  worthy  model  may  be  called 
the  negative  or  subjective  side  of  training,  for  the  parent 
only  lives  such  a  life  as  duty  demands,  after  all,  whether 
the  child  is  present  to  copy  his  behavior  or  not. 

Training  Through  Imitation  of  Others.  Another  phase 
of  the  influence  of  imitation  which  the  mother  learns  to 
recognize  very  early,  is  the  child's  imitation  of  others  out- 
side of  the  home.  Sometimes  this  process  results  in  very 
great  good  and  is  of  real  help  in  the  training  of  the  child. 
When  the  effect  is  undesirable,  the  mother  can  often 
counteract  it  by  arranging  some  unpleasant  association  in 
connection  with  either  the  undesirable  action,  or  with  the 
person  imitated,  or  with  both.  Care  is  often  necessary  to 
find  the  person  who  has  been  imitated  as  well  as  the  reason 
for  the  imitation.  Investigation  of  this  kind  often  reveals 
unsuspected  traits  of  character  in  one's  own  child. 

3.    TRAINING  THROUGH  HABIT  FORMATION 

Imitation  is  not  nature's  only  way  of  carrying  on  her 
part  of  the  child's  training  during  the  period  of  infancy. 
There  is  the  law  of  habit.  Habit  may  be  defined  in  a 
general  way  as  an  involuntary  tendency  or  aptitude  to  per- 
form certain  actions,  a  tendency  which  is  acquired  by  their 
frequent  repetition.  It  leads  us  to  do  easily  what  we  do 
often.  There  are  good  habits  and  bad  habits.  One  dis- 
couraging fact  to  mothers  is  that  in  order  to  secure  good 
habits  there  is  need  of  constant  and  conscious  effort,  while 


CHILD  TRAINING  197 

in  the  case  of  bad  habits  the  constant  and  conscious  effort 
is  needed  in  order  to  avoid  them.  Also  there  is  a  constant 
tendency  for  the  bad  habit  to  become  a  little  more  fixed 
and  for  the  good  habit  to  become  a  little  less  so.  But  it  is 
not  our  purpose  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  doctrine 
of  original  sin  or  of  "gravitation  downward."  We  must 
simply  take  the  facts  as  we  find  them  and  make  the  best 
use  we  can  of  them.  In  a  certain  sense  the  child  begins 
to  form  habits  as  soon  as  it  is  born.  By  taking  note  of 
these  so-called  habits,  the  mother  can  adjust  many  things 
in  the  life  of  the  baby  so  as  to  minister  to  its  health  and 
comfort,  and  to  her  own  convenience.  Care  in  regulating 
these  semi-unconscious  habits  will  be  a  good  beginning 
towards  the  regulating  of  the  conscious  habits  when  their 
time  conies. 

Obedience  Necessary.  The  formation  of  such  habits  as 
the  mother  may  wish  to  establish  in  her  child  is  dependent 
to  a  large  extent  upon  the  child's  obedience.  Therefore, 
one  of  the  first  habits  which  should  be  sought  is  the  habit 
of  obedience.  Obedience  has  been  spoken  of  on  its  nega- 
tive side  in  the  previous  chapter.  For  the  purpose  of  this 
discussion  of  habit  let  us  assume  that  the  child  is  naturally 
obedient  and  wait  until  a  little  later  to  consider  the  posi- 
tive part  which  obedience,  in  its  broadest  sense,  plays  in 
his  life.  First,  then,  let  us  look  at  some  things  which  are 
necessary  in  the  formation  of  habit  and  then  consider  the 
importance  of  habit  in  the  development  of  character. 

The  Power  of  Attention.  Suppose  that  the  mother 
wishes  to  secure  a  certain  good  habit  in  her  child.  How 
shall  she  go  about  it?  The  first  step  toward  inculcating 
a  good  habit  in  a  child  who  has  reached  the  thinking  age 


198  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

is  to  get  his  attention  directed  to  the  act  which  we  desire 
to  become  habitual.  Attention  is  involved  in  all  processes 
of  training  and  its  acquirement  will  help  all  other  proc- 
esses. It  may  be  developed  by  practice,  as  other  qualities 
are  developed.  Although  it  is  primarily  mental,  it  has  its 
physical  connection  through  the  nervous  system.  The  seat 
of  the  attention  is  in  the  neurones,  or  nerve  cells,  with 
their  various  filaments  in  the  very  front  part  of  the  brain. 
Here  we  get  the  power  to  fix  our  minds  upon  any  one 
thing,  instead  of  allowing  it  to  wander  aimlessly  and  to 
no  purpose. 

Voluntary  and  Involuntary  Attention.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  attention  which  are  of  interest  here,  voluntary 
and  involuntary  attention.  Voluntary  attention  requires 
conscious  effort.  Involuntary  attention  is  given  with- 
out conscious  effort.  Voluntary  attention,  or  the  ability 
to  focalize  the  mind  upon  one  particular  thing,  is  an  es- 
sential quality  of  a  successful  character.  All  mental  prog- 
ress depends  upon  this  ability.  By  voluntary  attention  a 
large  and  rich  mentality  is  built  up.  In  its  highest  develop- 
ment it  is  able  to  hold  the  mind  to  the  desired  point  in  spite 
of  disturbing  and  distracting  elements.  Involuntary  atten- 
tion, too,  is  a  valuable  factor  in  mental  development.  It 
is  an  outgrowth  of  successive  acts  of  voluntary  attention; 
that  is,  after  the  attention  has  been  fixed  in  a  voluntary 
way  for  a  considerable  number  of  times  upon  any  one 
process,  the  act  becomes  habitual  and  unconscious,  and 
voluntary  attention  passes  over  into  involuntary. 

The  Economy  of  Habit.  It  should  be  possible  then  to 
withdraw  the  conscious  effort  and  the  conscious  purpose 


CHILD  TRAINING  199 

and  still  maintain  the  power  of  action  whenever  the  cir- 
cumstances call  for  it.  A  life  which  does  not  get  beyond 
purposeful  attention  is  a  life  of  chaos.  In  other  words, 
the  person  who  requires  a  separate  mental  process  for  each 
of  the  innumerable  little  routine  acts  of  life  is  a  nervously 
ill-balanced  person.  The  larger  the  number  of  acts  which 
can  be  transferred  from  the  realm  of  the  voluntary  atten- 
tion to  that  of  the  involuntary,  the  more  free  energy  will 
there  be  for  other  things.1  Take,  for  example,  the  ordi- 
nary processes  of  a  child's  early  years.  It  is  desirable  to 
form  habits  of  dressing  and  undressing  quickly  instead  of 
dawdling,  of  cleaning  the  feet  at  the  door,  of  using  the 
napkin  at  the  table.  The  first  step  toward  the  acquire- 
ment of  these  ends  is  through  active  voluntary  attention. 
If  the  mother  sees  to  it  that  this  is  given  it  will  in  time  pass 
into  the  involuntary  state ;  that  is,  it  will  become  a  habit. 
Not  only  is  comfort  and  harmony  secured  in  the  home  by 
prompt  action  here,  but  the  possibility  of  giving  voluntary 
attention  to  other,  and  perhaps  more  important  things,  is 
enlarged. 

Physiological  Phase  of  Habit.  Regarded  from  a 
physiological  standpoint  each  repetition  of  a  conscious  act 
makes  a  definite  impression  upon  the  nerve  tissues,  or 
wears  a  path  between  certain  neurones,  or  nerve-cells,  with 
their  attached  fiber  over  which  subsequent  impressions 
pass  more  easily.  The  result  is  that  in  time  the  act  ceases 
to  require  attention  and  becomes  a  habit.  This  funda- 
mental characteristic  of  habit  formation  is  most  impor- 

1  Rowe,  Habit  Formation,  p.  22.  J.  R.  Angell,  Class  Lectures,  Feb- 
ruary, 1909. 


200  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

tant  in  all  training,  for  a  habit  once  formed  remains  fixed 
until  outside  circumstances  render  the  person  sensitive  to 
the  need  of  readjustment.  Our  whole  lives  are  groups 
of  habits,  physical,  emotional,  intellectual. 

Moral  Phase  of  Habit.  The  moral  phase  of  habit  has 
a  vital  bearing  upon  character  formation.  Some  one  has 
said  that  morality  is  a  habit  before  it  is  a  principle.  This 
habit  of  morality,  formed  in  childhood,  may  be  looked  at 
from  two  sides.  First,  it  makes  right  doing  easy  if  not 
natural  to  the  child;  second,  owing  to  the  antagonism 
between  right  and  wrong,  it  makes  the  formation  of  bad 
habits  difficult  or  impossible.  Reference  has  already  been 
made  to  Professor  Rowe's  work  upon  Habit  Formation. 
In  his  chapter  upon  how  to  break  up  bad  habits  he  refers 
to  the  fact  that  all  habit-breaking  is  at  the  same  time 
habit- forming.  It  is  harder  to  break  a  habit  than  to  form 
one,  because  it  is  a  negative  process  and  seems  like  a  step 
backward.  The  joy  of  accomplishment  that  comes  with 
positive  attainment  is  lacking.  This  makes  it  better  to 
crowd  out  bad  habits  by  forming  good  ones.  It  is  par- 
ticularly hard  to  break  habits  which  have  crept  into  being 
unconsciously,  for  the  attention  must  first  be  centered 
upon  them,  or  upon  the  inhibiting  stimulus.  A  bad  habit 
is  usually  formed  because  it  is  in  the  line  of  least  resist- 
ance. Hence,  if  it  is  to  be  broken,  the  new  habit  which 
is  substituted  for  it  must  have  some  decided  advantage 
over  the  old.  It  is  evident  that  there  is  a  wide  opportunity 
on  the  part  of  the  mother  to  aid  her  child  in  the  formation 
of  good  habits,  in  preventing  the  formation  of  bad  habits, 
and  in  breaking  up  bad  habits  when  they  are  once  formed.1 

1  Rowe,  Habit  Formation,  p.  232, 


CHILD  TRAINING  2OI 

4.    THE  WILL 

From  this  brief  discussion  of  attention  and  habit,  the 
transition  to  the  consideration  of  the  will  is  a  natural  one. 
A  satisfactory  definition  of  the  will  is  not  easy  to  give. 
The  will  is  not  a  thing  set  off  by  itself  or  presiding  over 
the  mind  and  pushing  it  hither  and  yon  as  the  notion  takes 
it.  The  best  definitions  of  the  will  are  those  which  aim  to 
describe  its  functions  rather  than  to  accurately  charac- 
terize it.  Professor  Angell  says,  "The  will  is  the  whole 
range  of  the  mental  life  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  its 
activity  and  control  over  movement/'1  "The  character/' 
said  J.  S.  Mill,  "is  a  completely  fashioned  will."  "The 
original  spring  of  the  volitional  faculty,"  says  Professor 
James,  "is  the  moral  law/'  or,  in  other  words,  moral 
sentiment  arises  around  acts  and  attitudes  of  the  will. 

The  Function  of  Will.  Mrs.  Cabot  says,  "Ethics  is  the 
power  of  right  choosing.  If  we  were  made  to  act  the 
right  mechanically,  we  should  not  be  ourselves,  for  it  is 
the  moral  life  which  makes  us  ourselves,  and  the  moral 
life  is  the  life  of  choice."  It  is  true  that  the  immediate 
motive  for  any  act  of  willing  may  be  a  variety  of  things, 
but  it  is  the  deciding  which  one  of  these  things  shall  be  the 
impelling  force  which  makes  the  act  individual.  We  are 
accustomed  to  think  that  it  is  only  the  will  that  makes  us 
act.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  the  tendency  of  all  conscious 
states  to  act,  that  is,  to  do  something.  Professor  Judd 
says,  The  action  will  be  controlled  by  the  total  group  of 
interests  which  one  has  built  up  in  his  individual  life  as 
representing  the  sum  total  of  his  personal  relations  to  the 
world.  Hence,  the  function  of  the  will  is  two- fold,  i.  On 

1  J.  R.  Angell,  Psychology,  p.  437. 


202  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

the  positive  side,  the  will  must  see  that  the  instinctive 
action  is  the  proper  one.  2.  On  the  negative  side,  the  will 
must  be  the  restraining  power  to  prevent  acts  of  which  the 
intellect  disapproves.  The  act  of  the  will  on  the  positive 
side  is  called  willing.  The  act  on  the  negative  side  is 
called  inhibition  or  self-control.  Hence  we  see  that  the 
will  is  responsible  both  for  what  we  do,  and  what  we  do 
not  do.  We  find  that  the  tendency  of  all  action  is  to  fol- 
low the  line  of  least  resistance.  If,  then,  a  higher  action 
is  to  be  chosen  instead  of  a  lower  one,  this  order  must  be 
changed  and  the  line  of  greater  resistance  followed.1 
Similarly,  we  found  in  the  discussion  of  habit  that,  as  the 
propensity  to  do  wrong  in  ordinary  humanity  is  stronger 
than  the  ideal  to  do  right,  if  people  are  left  to  themselves, 
the  former  will  triumph.  Professor  James  says  that  peo- 
ple do  not  differ  so  much  in  their  feelings  and  conceptions 
as  to  what  is  right,  but  where  wrong  is  followed  it  is 
because  moral  knowledge  does  not  act.  The  ego,  the  real 
self,  the  will,  does  not  take  the  helm.  "One  of  the  saddest 
feelings  which  one  can  bear  with  him  throughout  this  life 
is  to  habitually  see  the  better  way  and  do  the  worse." 

What  Makes  the  Will  Act?  A  very  natural  question 
here  is,  "What  makes  the  will  act?"  What  influence  im- 
pels it?  Professor  Judd  shows  that  the  stimuli  of  the  will 
change  as  the  race  develops.  It  is  probable  that  the  funda- 
mental incentive  is  individual  interest.  This  interest,  as 
has  been  suggested  before,  may  be  resolved  into  a  broadly 
inclusive  selfishness.  But  pleasure  and  pain,  both  in  a 
broad  and  a  narrow  sense,  have  always  been  large  factors 

1  James,  Psychology,  pp.  435,  442,  443. 


CHILD  TRAINING  203 

in  the  impelling  and  in  the  inhibiting  work  of  the  will.1 
How  Does  the  Will  Act?  The  next  question  is,  "How 
does  the  will  act?"  Every  tendency  to  action  is  preceded 
by  a  conscious  process  or  an  idea.  The  will  is  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  idea  and  the  action.  It  is  the 
function  of  the  will  to  bring  the  idea  before  the  mind.  If 
the  will  succeeds  in  getting  the  mind  to  accept  the  idea 
wholly  and  without  reserve,  the  consciousness  is  bound  to 
act  upon  it.  The  effort  of  the  will,  then,  is  to  secure  from 
the  mind  this  complete  acceptance  of  the  idea,  even  though 
it  may  not  be  agreeable  to  the  mind.  "If  reasonable  ideas 
could  once  get  a  quiet  hearing,  motor  consequences  would 
ensue  with  the  word  now.  The  duty  of  the  will  is  done 
when  the  idea  really  prevails  in  the  mind.  The  remaining 
part  is  the  physical  act  of  doing  the  thing. 

Strengthening  the  Will.  The  ability  of  the  individual 
to  strengthen  his  will  acts  very  slowly.  It  must  be  built 
up  by  degrees  as  the  physical  body  is  built  up.  If,  then, 
the  mother  wishes  to  strengthen  the  child's  volitional 
power  and  at  the  same  time  influence  him  to  right  action, 
she  must  first  influence  his  motor  images.  By  motor 
images  are  meant  the  ideas  or  mental  pictures  of  things 
which  fill  the  childs'  mind  and  which  usually  form  the 
incentive  for  his  actions.  If  she  can  place  before  him 
motor  ideas  which  interest  him  and  are  agreeable  to  him, 
he  will  act  upon  them.  As  was  shown  above,  things  nat- 
urally disagreeable  may  be  accepted  by  bringing  the  child 
to  see  that  they  are  preferable.  By  a  constant  holding  of 
the  right  way  before  the  mind,  together  with  acceptable 
reasons  for  following  this  right  way,  a  quiet  but  irre- 

1  James,  Psychology,  p.  445. 


204  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

sistible  force  will  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  strategic 
point  in  the  citadel  of  character.  Try  to  secure  complete 
and  unreserved  acceptance  of  high  ideals.  If,  as  the  intel- 
ligence of  the  child  develops,  he  fixes  his  mind  consciously 
upon  high  ideals,  he  will  be  likely  to  follow  them.  If  the 
will  is  exercised  in  small  things,  it  will  be  ready  for  the 
large  ones.  Professor  James  says  that  the  whole  of  one's 
training  to  moral  and  prudential  conduct  is  in  training  the 
will.  Professor  Angell  declares  that  any  purposeful  men- 
tal occupation  affords  the  means  of  developing  certain 
powers  of  control.  The  best  trained  man  is  one  who  can 
command  his  own  knowledge,  his  own  attention,  and  his 
own  action.  Professor  Tyler  goes  a  step  farther  and  says, 
"Those  who  wish  to  develop  a  strong  character  must  go 
deeper  than  the  intellect,  must  move  the  feelings  to  reach 
the  will."1 

Applying  the  Will.  Having  considered  the  psychology 
of  this  wonderfully  complex  process  of  willing,  we  may 
turn  to  some  of  the  practical  applications  of  right  willing. 
Earlier  in  the  chapter  we  spoke  of  the  necessity  of  obedi- 
ence in  securing  results  from  any  system  of  training.  I 
want  to  say  a  word  here  about  the  habit  of  obedience. 
That  is,  we  will  not  consider  obedience  as  a  series  of  iso- 
lated acts  but  as  a  habit  or  attitude  of  the  child.  The 
consensus  of  opinion  among  those  who  have  expressed 
themselves  most  frankly  upon  the  subject  is  that  the  ideal 
relation  of  the  child  to  its  parents  up  to  the  close  of  the 
pre-adolescent  period,  is  that  of  implicit  obedience.  In 
this  day  of  the  discussion  of  children's  rights  the  para- 
doxical truth  obtains  that  one  of  the  child's  paramount 

1  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  194. 


CHILD  TRAINING  205 

rights  is  to  be  taught  to  obey.1  This  does  not  mean  obedi- 
ence in  a  craven  or  slavish  sense;  but  simply  a  habit  of 
willing  and  trustful  obedience.  The  child  who  has  such 
a  habit  will  be  started  in  life  with  the  largest  measure  of 
self-control.  Has  it  ever  occurred  to  you  that  everybody 
is  obeying  something  in  every  act  which  he  performs?  If 
the  child,  then,  is  not  obeying  his  parents,  whom  or  what 
is  he  obeying?  We  can  hardly  think  that  his  own  judg- 
ment is  sufficiently  developed  to  be  a  safe  guide.  He  is 
then  following  the  dictates  of  his  impulses  and  desires, 
which  are  sure  to  be  strong  at  this  time  and  for  the  most 
part  untrained.  While  the  mother,  in  exacting  obedience, 
must  always  recognize  the  personality  of  the  child,  she 
must  also  remember  that  she  is  his  first  law-giver  and  as 
such  has  much  to  do  with  establishing  his  future  attitude 
towards  law  in  general.  Obedience  to  parents  is  obedi- 
ence to  the  child's  wiser  self.  All  right  obedience  is  the 
expression  of  the  child's  self  in  the  best  service  he  knows. 
Obedience  is  a  self-government  without  which  there  is  no 
moral  life.  Thus,  as  was  said  in  the  previous  chapter, 
harmony  and  order  in  the  home  are  not  the  only  outcome 
of  obedience  on  the  part  of  the  children.  There  is  devel- 
oped in  the  child  himself,  self-control  and  the  power  to 
inhibit  wrong  and  unworthy  action.  As  he  advances  in 
years  his  attitude  is  less  that  of  obedience  to  the  letter  and 
more  that  of  obedience  to  the  spirit  of  his  parent's  wishes. 
His  own  conscience  takes  the  place  of  external  dictates. 
There  is  no  more  supreme  moment  for  the  parent  than 
when  he  recognizes  that  the  child  is  beginning  to  do  from 
his  own  choice  what  he  formerly  did  under  authority. 

1  A.  E.  Coe,  Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  p.  273. 


206  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

The  relation  of  parent  and  child  gradually  changes  as  the 
years  pass,  and  the  parent  becomes  the  confidential  adviser 
and  friend,  rather  than  the  law-giver.  It  has  been  well 
said  that  obedience  to  authority  is  discipline.  Obedience 
to  one's  own  higher  nature  is  character.  That  parent 
shows  the  greatest  insight  who  knows  when  the  issue  is 
not  obedience  to  the  parent  by  the  child,  but  obedience  of 
the  child  to  himself.1 

5.    DISCIPLINE 

The  obedience  of  the  child's  early  years,  however,  must, 
as  has  already  been  said,  be  an  obedience  to  authority,  and 
hence,  discipline.  Professor  Garman  has  said  that  dis- 
cipline is  the  price  we  pay  for  our  manhood.  If  this  be 
true,  it  is  neither  safe  nor  honest  to  let  the  bill  run  up. 
We  should  adopt  the  motto,  "Pay  as  we  go." 

Discipline  may  be  considered  under  three  heads: 
i.  Punishment.  2.  Appeal.  3.  Reason. 

Corporal  Punishment.  In  taking  up  the  subject  of 
punishment,  we  think  first  of  corporal  punishment.  This 
is  usually  taken  to  mean  the  infliction  of  some  form  of 
bodily  pain.  There  is  some  prejudice  against  corporal 
punishment,  especially  in  the  form  of  spanking  or  whip- 
ping. This  much  may  be  said  for  the  latter  form,  how- 
ever, when  properly  used:  It  has  the  advantage  of 
promptness  and  definiteness  and  of  saving  the  time  and 
nervous  energy  of  the  parent.  Nothing  is  so  racking  to 
the  nerves  of  a  sensitive  mother  as  a  long  drawn  out 
punishment  to  a  child.  It  is  also  probably  true  that  there 
are  some  children  who  will  never  reach  their  highest  pos- 

1  Forbush,  The  Boy  Problem,  pp.  204,  206. 


CHILD  TRAINING  2Q7 

sibilities  in  life  without  being  whipped.  They  seem  to 
need  just  this  sort  of  external  stimulus  to  get  them 
started  right.  But  even  though  the  ultimate  results  were 
not  affected  by  the  whipping,  the  immediate  relief  to 
both  parent  and  child  is  worthy  of  being  considered.  It 
is  an  accepted  maxim  that  we  go  to  war  in  order  to 
secure  the  benefits  of  a  lasting  and  well-grounded  peace. 
For  a  somewhat  similar  reason  a  very  mild  and  peaceful 
parent  will  often  find  it  necessary  to  apply  sharp  bodily 
punishment,  when  other  agencies  have  proved  unavail- 
ing. I  know  a  child,  and  I  think  he  is  an  example  of  a 
class,  to  whom  the  sting  of  corporal  punishment,  and  his 
own  resulting  cry,  seem  to  act  as  a  nervous  relief.  After 
the  spanking,  which  was  often  deferred  beyond  reason, 
there  was  always  a  reign  of  quiet  and  peace.  Dr.  Hall 
speaks  thus  of  bodily  punishment:  "Dermal  pain  is  far 
from  being  the  evil  that  sentimental,  nervous  adults  re- 
gard it.  To  flog  wisely  should  not  become  a  lost  art, 
although  of  course  it  should  be  supplemented  by  different 
influences."  Evidence  obtained  from  children  shows  that 
they  do  not  as  a  rule  look  upon  corporal  punishment  with 
the  same  horror  that  their  elders  do.  There  was  a  time 
when  much  was  said  about  natural  punishments.  Such 
punishments  have  been  spoken  of  in  an  earlier  chapter. 
They  refer  to  such  unpleasant  results  as  come  naturally 
from  the  act.  It  has  been  said  that,  while  nature  is  wise 
in  her  larger  aspects,  when  it  comes  to  life's  detailed 
adjustments  she  is  not  altogether  just.  She  often  re- 
wards us  for  our  misdeeds,  and  punishes  us  for  praise- 
worthy toil.  In  other  words,  the  measures  of  nature, 
when  ineffective,  must  be  reinforced  by  artificial  meas- 


208  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

ures.  What  the  punishment  shall  be,  in  cases  where  there 
is  no  natural  penalty,  must  depend  very  largely  upon  the 
nature  of  the  child.  It  must  be  neither  too  severe  nor 
too  light.  If  the  child  does  not  yield  to  mild  punish- 
ment, he  lays  himself  open  to  more  severe  ones.  The 
main  object  in  punishment  is  to  establish  unpleasant  asso- 
ciations with  the  doing  of  the  wrong  act.  It  should 
serve  as  a  moral  vaccination  in  the  case  of  mild  sickness 
to  ward  off  a  more  dangerous  one.1 

Threatening  to  Punish.  Threatening  to  punish,  when 
the  threat  is  sincere  and  full  of  meaning,  will  often  serve 
the  purpose  of  the  punishment  itself.  If  the  child  abso- 
lutely knows  that  the  threat  will  be  carried  out  as  uttered, 
that  is  usually  enough,  after  one  experience.  But  con- 
stant threatening,  with  little  or  no  idea  of  execution, 
stultifies  family  discipline.  As  for  scolding,  it  is  usually 
a  bad  procedure.  Scolding  which  is  simply  the  outlet 
for  the  feelings  of  a  nervous  and  irritable  parent,  with 
small  idea  of  really  affecting  the  conduct  of  the  child, 
is  always  bad.  Scolding  which  descends  into  nagging 
is  also  bad.  But  Dr.  Hall  suggests  that  there  is  a  kind 
of  scolding  which  has  a  place.  He  says,  "Judicious  and 
incisive  scolding  is  a  moral  tonic,  and  if  rightly  admin- 
istered may  be  extremely  effective."  This  is  another 
indication  that  the  way  in  which  you  do  a  thing  is  quite 
as  important  as  the  thing  you  do.  Dr.  O'Shea  follows 
the  same  line  when  he  speaks  of  punishing  in  anger.  He 
declares  that  the  element  of  anger  should  not  be  wholly 
eliminated  from  discipline,  but  that  the  anger  of  the  par- 
ent is  a  part  of  the  child's  punishment,  and  a  part  which 

1  Rowe,  Habit  Formation,  p.  195.    Tanner,  The  Child,  p.  207. 


CHILD  TRAINING  ;    209 

often  proves  more  effective  than  anything  else.  Punish- 
ments of  this  kind  are  not  adapted  to  later  years,  but 
between  the  ages  of  two  and  twelve,  when,  as  Tyler  says, 
the  child  is  under  the  Old  Testament  dispensation,1' 
authority  should  hold  a  large  place  in  the  family  discipline. 

The  Personal  Appeal.  We  are  now  ready  to  consider 
the  second  kind  of  discipline  or  training,  which  is  the 
personal  and  social  appeal.  This  may  be  wisely  used 
before  the  child  is  old  enough  to  discriminate  broadly  in 
an  intellectual  way.  Perhaps  it  is  well  to  use  it  also  after 
that  time,  but  it  should  be  used  with  caution,-  for  if  obe- 
dience is  asked  from  a  child  on  the  ground  of  personal 
feeling  or  affection  after  he  has  reached  the  stage  of 
rationality,  the  appeal  is  sure  to  detract  in  the  mind  of 
the  child  from  the  dignity  of  these  feelings  as  they  exist 
in  the  person  of  the  parent.  The  personal  appeal  is  the 
appeal  to  the  child's  own  feelings  of  love  or  sympathy 
or  thought  fulness  for  the  mother.  With  children  of  a 
certain  disposition  it  is  very  effective.  With  others  it  is 
not.  Where  the  child  is  indifferent  or  antagonistic  to 
the  appeal  it  greatly  weakens  the  position  of  the  parent 
to  make  it.  Where  he  is  affectionate  but  thoughtless, 
the  suggestion  that  he  has  hurt  his  mother's  feelings  will 
probably  influence  him  not  to  repeat  the  act.  But  if, 
again,  he  does  repeat  the  act  it  shows  that  the  response 
was  only  a  superficial  one.  The  nature  of  the  mind  is 
such  that  whenever  an  appeal  is  made  and  unheeded  the 
next  response  is  weaker,  and  eventually  the  force  of  the 
appeal  is  entirely  lost. 

The  Social  Appeal.     The  social  appeal  is  different  in 

1  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  148. 


2io  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

character  and  calls  upon  the  child's  pride.  When  he  has 
misbehaved,  the  parent  may  call  his  attention  to  one  or 
more  persons  whom  he  respects  and  may  suggest  that  he 
or  she  would  not  have  done  such  a  thing.  This  method 
has  its  limitations,  and  must  not  be  used  habitually,  but 
it  sometimes  proves  helpful,  especially  in  the  case  of  a 
child  whose  pride  is  more  prominent  than  his  affection. 

Reasoning  Used  in  Training.  When  we  come  to  the 
third  kind  of  discipline,  namely,  the  use  of  reason  and 
ideals,  we  find  ourselves  upon  a  different  plane.  Indeed, 
the  question  might  be  asked  whether  reasoning  with  a 
child  is  discipline  at  all.1  But  it  is  undoubtedly  a  means 
of  development  and  in  that  sense  is  discipline,  although 
differing  in  kind  from  either  of  the  two  kinds  of  training 
mentioned.  Appeals  to  the  reason  can  be  used  effectively 
where  the  child's  reason  and  sense  of  right  have  been 
developed,  and  probably,  in  many  cases,  help  to  develop 
these  qualities.  In  adopting  the  use  of  reason  the  idea 
of  authority  on  the  part  of  the  parent  is  presumably  ex- 
cluded. The  thought  is  that  the  child,  in  accepting  or 
rejecting  any  course  of  conduct,  is  to  follow  his  own 
choice.  While,  of  course,  the  feelings  may  influence  an 
act  of  reason,  it  is  not,  as  in  the  former  case,  the  feelings 
which  are  appealed  to.  Whatever  results  come  from 
the  choice  shall  be  the  ones  which  he  freely  accepted,  in 
so  far  as  he  was  able  to  anticipate  what  the  results  would 
be.  There  are  here  two  elements  with  which  to  deal, 
though  they  sometimes  overlap. 

The  Appeal  to  the  Intellect.  The  child  must  be  shown 
from  the  intellectual  standpoint  why  it  will  be  preferable 

1  Rowe,  Habit  Formation,  p.  124. 


CHILD  TRAINING  211 

to  follow  one  course  rather  than  another.  The  reasons 
will  probably  be  either  immediately  or  remotely  selfish, 
but  the  appeal  is  to  the  intellectual  ideals,  not  to  the  senses. 
The  situation  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  in- 
stances: A  boy  who  is  inclined  to  be  quarrelsome  and 
to  fight  with  his  schoolmates  may  be  reasoned  out  of 
this  course  of  conduct  by  being  made  to  see  that  he  will 
eventually  meet  some  boy  in  combat  who  will  be  a  better 
fighter  than  he  is,  and  he  will  be  badly  hurt.  A  girl 
with  a  violent  temper  may  be  induced  to  control  it  if  she 
is  made  to  see  that  by  it  she  will  lose  social  prestige.  A 
boy  will  sometimes  refrain  from  the  use  of  tobacco  when 
he  is  shown  that  it  will  stunt  his  growth  and  lessen  his 
chance  of  a  successful  manhood. 

The  Appeal  to  the  Moral  Sense.  The  second  element 
in  the  appeal  to  the  reason  is  upon  the  moral  side.  The 
reasons  for  doing  or  not  doing  a  certain  act  are  that  it  is 
either  right  or  wrong.  Instances  of  this  method  are  so 
common  and  so  numerous  as  not  to  require  mention.  The 
appeal  is  to  the  moral  ideals.  The  highest  possible  motive 
to  action  is  the  doing  of  right  for  right's  sake,  without 
reference  to  the  consequences.  But  in  the  appeal  to  chil- 
dren, or  young  people,  one  cannot  get  away,  and  one 
does  not  wish  to  get  away,  from  the  feeling  of  satisfac- 
tion which  will  follow  the  right  action  and  the  feeling 
of  unhappiness  which  will  follow  the  wrong  action.  The 
quickening  of  the  conscience  is  a  long  step  towards  the 
establishing  of  the  higher  ideals  which  can  only  come 
with  maturity  and  experience.  It  is  right  here,  in  con- 
nection with  the  establishing  of  moral  ideals  as  incentives 
to  conduct,  that  the  mother  finds  the  real  test  of  her 


212  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

generalship.  Can  she,  like  Socrates,  make  what  seems 
to  the  child's  mind  the  worse  appear  the  better  reason? 
Here  is  the  core  of  all  child  training.  Can  the  mother 
present  right  ideals  to  the  child's  mind  in  such  a  way 
that  they  will  appeal  to  him?  Can  she  hold  them  there 
so  persistently  that  in  a  sense  he  will  act  upon  them  in 
spite  of  himself?  She  has  a  splendid  psychological  basis 
for  her  efforts.  When  coupled  with  her  knowledge  of 
the  child's  heredity  and  environment  there  would  seem 
to  be  every  opportunity  for  her  to  lead  him  up  into  a 
life  of  strength  and  virtue. 

The  Aim  of  All  Training.  This  is  the  point  towards 
which  all  her  study  has  been  aiming.  It  is  really  all  of 
life  brought  within  the  sphere  of  the  home  and  within 
the  range  of  the  mother's  influence.  In  a  sense,  the  world 
was  created  in  order  that  each  individual  might  learn, 
through  its  discipline,  to  choose  from  many  possible  ways 
the  right  way.  In  teaching  the  child  to  do  right  for 
right's  sake,  the  mother  has,  then,  reached  the  ultimate 
goal  of  all  training.  She  is  dealing  with  the  highest 
phase  of  human  thought.  The  reason  and  the  ideals  are 
the  child's  real  self,  the  permanent  self,  the  only  self 
that  is  worth  working  for.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  when 
once  this  reasonable  and  moral  self  is  put  in  control  of 
the  life  processes,  the  whole  question  of  character  is  set- 
tled. In  other  words,  when  your  child  reaches  the  point 
where,  through  his  sense  of  reasonableness  and  right,  he 
will  choose  the  course  which  under  other  impulses  he 
did  not  wish  to  choose,  he  has  attained  the  "highest 
good."  From  this  point  on,  it  is  simply  a  question  of 
persistency  in  choosing  the  right  until  the  doing  of  it 


CHILD  TRAINING 


213 


falls  into  the  realm  of  habit.  Is  this  ideal  higher  than 
the  mother  dares  to  look?  It  is  higher  than  many  do 
look,  but  no  mother  should  look  any  lower. 

Reasons  for  Apparent  Failure.  But  some  will  urge 
that  they  have  tried  the  appeal  to  reason  and  failed.  Per- 
haps it  was  because  the  child  was  not  yet  ready  for  it; 
because  the  mind  was  not  yet  strong  enough  to  be  capable 
of  responding  to  it.  These  higher  powers  come  by  de- 
velopment and  experience  and  sometimes  come  very 
slowly.  I  knew  of  a  case  where  a  mother  spent  some 
time  in  reasoning  with  her  boy,  to  get  him  to  choose  to 
do  a  certain  thing  which  he  did  not  want  to  do.  The 
boy  listened  to  her  for  a  time  with  downcast  eyes.  When 
the  grand  climax  had  been  reached,  and  the  mother  was 
waiting  for  his  response,  he  slyly  glanced  up  at  her  and 
said,  "Well,  have  I  got  to  do  it?"  The  mother  asked, 
"Won't  you  choose  to  do  it?"  "No,"  he  said,  "I  won't 
choose  to,  but  you  know  I  will  do  it  if  you  say  I  must." 
"Well,  then,  you  must/'  said  the  mother.  Whereupon 
the  boy  remarked,  quietly,  "All  right,  but  you  might  have 
saved  yourself  the  trouble  of  talking  so  long."  The 
mother  had,  as  she  thought,  hitched  her  wagon  to  a  star, 
only  to  find  herself  jogging  along  after  the  same  old  cob. 

Confusion  of  Ideals.  Again,  we  confuse  and  mingle 
these  highest  appeals  with  other  and  lower  motives.  In 
so  doing  we  deceive  ourselves  and  confuse  the  moral 
sense  of  the  child.  This  is  especially  likely  to  be  the  case 
when  the  mother  herself  is  not  very  thoroughly  imbued 
with  the  high  ideals  which  she  desires  to  have  the  child 
accept.  Surely  no  parent  can  successfully  make  this 
appeal  to  the  child  if  she  does  not  order  her  own  life  in 


214  STUDIES  IN  CHILD-  DEVELOPMENT 

accordance  with  it.  Yet  many  mothers  flatter  themselves 
that  they  are  "appealing  to  the  child's  reason"  when,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  they  are  appealing  to  something  quite 
remote  from  this  splendid  faculty — perhaps  it  is  to  his 
sense  of  self-interest,  perhaps  to  his  pride,  perhaps  to 
other  motives  which  have  been  discussed  under  some  of 
the  foregoing  heads. 

Adolescence  Brings  Response  to  Higher  Ideals.  While 
we  started  with  the  simplest  methods  of  discipline  and 
training,  we  have  gone  on  in  our  study  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  pre-adolescent  period.  The  higher  consciousness 
of  moral  standards  will  not  be  fully  awakened  until  ideals 
are  stirred  through  the  transforming  power  of  adoles- 
cence. But,  if  the  child  has  been  held  with  reasonable 
firmness  during  the  first  ten  or  twelve  years  of  his  life 
to  the  standards  of  the  home,  if  the  atmosphere  has  been 
one  of  absolute  sincerity  and  high  ideals,  by  the  time  he 
reaches  the  period  of  mental  adolescence  he  should  be 
ready  to  respond  to  the  highest  appeal.  The  years  before 
twelve  are  the  years  for  the  sowing  of  the  good  seed  of 
strong  character.  If  this  seed  has  not  been  sown  in  its 
proper  time,  there  will  be  no  need  to  look  for  a  harvest; 
it  will  not  come.  That  there  may  be  partial  responses 
and  stages  of  development  in  the  growth  towards  this 
ideal  is,  of  course,  true.  The  rapidity  of  the  develop- 
ment will  depend  much  upon  the  original  endowment  of 
the  child.  But,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  next  chapter,  it 
is  not  until  adolescence  has  been  reached  that  the  moral 
law  can  become  an  inward  impulse.  Whether  or  not  it 
does  so  depends  upon  the  material  with  which  it  has  to 
work  and  the  way  in  which  this  material  has  been  pre- 


CHILD  TRAINING  21$ 

pared.  It  is  during  the  adolescent  period  that  the  mental 
and  spiritual  processes  are  developed  which  are  capable 
of  responding  to  and  making  real  within  the  soul  these 
highest  ideals  of  the  moral  world. 

6.    RELIGIOUS  TRAINING 

There  is  still  one  phase  of  training  to  be  discussed. 
This  is  religious  training.  When  we  come  to  the  con- 
sideration of  conscience  and  the  Divine  Being,  our  duty 
lies  along  the  nurture  side  of  development  rather  than 
the  disciplinary  side.  Hence  it  might  perhaps  be  nearer 
the  truth  to  speak  of  this  as  religious  nurture  than  as 
religious  training.  But  we  will  for  convenience  use  the 
generally  accepted  term,  giving  it,  however,  the  broadest 
interpretation.  We  will  take  up  the  subject  first  on  its 
negative  side. 

Function  of  the  Home.  In  what  ways  is  religious 
training  being  neglected  in  the  home?  While  I  do  not 
want  to  be  understood  as  identifying  religious  training 
with  moral  or  ethical  training,  I  am  sure  it  will  be  ad- 
mitted that  they  are  associated  in  very  definite  ways. 
With  our  miscellaneous  population  and  our  very  proper 
separation  of  church  and  state,  there  is  no  place  in  our 
schools  for  religious  training.  So  far,  the  introduction 
of  moral  instruction,  by  itself,  has  resulted  in  a  cold 
formalism  which  has  been  far  from  satisfactory. 
Whether  or  not  moral  training  of  the  young  can  be  made 
effective  without  definite  religious  training,  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  so  far  it  has  not  been  made  so.  Religious  in- 
struction and  training  must  fundamentally  be  given  in 
the  home.  If  not  given  there  it  will  probably  not  be 


2i6  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

given  at  all.  Whatever  comes  through  church  and  Sun- 
day school  life  will  be  supplementary,  but  cannot  be  de- 
pended upon.  If  religion  and  its  highest  ideals  are  to 
really  mean  anything  in  the  future  life  and  thought  of 
the  child,  these  elements  must  be  implanted  in  the  home. 
Herbert  Spencer  has  declared  that  our  education  is  a 
failure  in  that  it  is  not  creating  high  ideals.  What  can 
be  done  to  arouse  fathers  and  mothers  to  a  sense  of  their 
duty  in  the  moral  and  religious  training  of  their  children? 
Dr.  Hall  says  that  the  family  has  an  educational  function 
which  cannot  be  transferred  to  the  kindergarten,  the  public 
school,  or  the  church  school.  In  proportion  as  parents 
are  doing  or  not  doing  their  full  duty  there,  they  are 
promoting  or  holding  back  the  coming  of  God's  kingdom 
in  the  earth.1 

Idea  of  Right  and  Wrong.  The  ideas  of  right  and 
wrong  which  we  identify  with  conscience  are  very  vague 
at  first  and,  as  was  said  in  a  former  chapter,  are  closely 
interwoven  with  self-interest.  But  the  mother  has  great 
influence  in  directing  the  conscience  during  these  forma- 
tive years.  The  kind  of  conscience  which  the  child  is 
now  developing  will  determine  largely  the  conscience 
of  his  mature  years.  As  time  passes,  conscience  becomes 
embracing.  Mrs.  Cabot  says,  "It  does  not  remain  a  mys- 
terious and  separate  faculty,  but  it  is  the  real  person 
himself  when  he  is  fully  alive  and  thinking.  Conscien- 
tiousness is  the  timely  and  serviceable  will  to  do  what 
is  right." 

First  Idea  of  God.  The  child's  first  ideas  of  God  are 
implicit  and  naive.  There  is  very  little  wondering  or 

1 G.  A.  Coe,  Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  p.  39. 


CHILD  TRAINING  217 

questioning.  God  seems  very  near  and  intimate.  Fear 
in  this  connection  is  seldom  present.  Religious  services 
are  adopted  unconsciously.  These  early  years  of  recep- 
tivity are  of  great  significance  to  the  mother,  for  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  child's  idea  of  God,  wherever  it 
originated,  will  develop  along  whatever  line  it  is  trained. 
The  height  to  which  the  child  rises  as  a  moral  and  relig- 
ious being  will  depend  upon  the  moral  and  religious 
environment  in  which  he  grows  up.1 

To  the  young  child,  the  mother  stands  in  the  place  of 
God,  and  the  first  religious  training  is  the  good  care  and 
patient  watchfulness  with  which  she  inspires  and  responds 
to  the  implicit  confidence  of  her  little  one.  As  the  years 
go  by,  the  child's  mind  reaches  out  after  a  power  which 
shall  be  above  and  beyond  the  power  of  his  parents.  Then 
is  the  time  for  teaching  about  God.  There  is  a  ready 
response  to  the  distinction  between  right  and  wrong. 
Professor  J.  B.  Pratt  tells  of  several  cases  where  parents 
tried  the  experiment  of  bringing  up  their  children,  as  far 
as  possible,  with  no  idea  of  God.  But  in  spite  of  all 
efforts,  the  children  were  discovered  to  have  a  conception 
of  an  all-powerful  being  outside  of  themselves  and 
stronger  than  their  parents.  The  religious  life  of  the 
child  is,  of  course,  more  or  less  external  at  this  time,  but 
it  is  a  period  of  preparation  for  the  vital  and  internal 
religious  life  which  will  be  a  part  of  the  adult  character. 
Professor  Starbuck  speaks  of  the  formal  nature  of  the 
child's  religion  during  the  early  years,  and  says  his  ideas 
of  right  and  wrong  are  largely  personal. 

Daily  Life  of  Parents.     The  first  religious  training 

1  Earl  Barnes,  Studies  in  Education,  Vol.  I,  p.  283. 


2i8  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

has  been  referred  to  as  the  mother's  loving  care.  In 
close  connection  with  this  is  the  daily  life  of  the  parents. 
The  child's  instinct  for  imitation  comes  into  play  here. 
He  may  not  imitate  all  of  the  good  things  you  do,  but 
he  will  probably  imitate  most  of  the  bad  ones.  Yet  per- 
sons who  themselves  have  strong  faith  in  God  and  who 
live  their  daily  lives  near  to  Him  will  in  some  manner 
be  able  to  draw  their  children  to  God.  Moral  precepts 
count  but  little;  in  fact,  they  are  likely  to  lead  to  moral 
confusion,  whether  received  in  the  home  or  in  the  church, 
unless  the  life  in  the  home  corresponds  with  them.  Only 
those  homes  are  safe  and  happy  where  God  is  openly 
recognized  and  worshiped.  Christian  parents  must  live 
more  with  their  children,  and  so  live  their  religion  into 
them.  An  undeveloped  life  is  helped  by  mingling  with 
it  the  interests  and  occupations  of  a  developed  life.  Some 
one  has  said  that  children  receive  from  their  parents 
the  tone  and  temper  of  their  souls.  Nothing  is  a  sub- 
stitute to  the  child  for  the  parent's  self.  A  father  was 
once  told  by  the  tutor  of  his  son  that  the  boy  had  gone 
wrong.  "I  do  not  understand  that,"  said  the  father;  "I 
have  given  him  everything  that  he  could  wish  for."  It 
seemed  that  himself  he  had  not  given.  The  atmosphere 
and  environment  of  the  home  are  potent  factors  in  the 
child's  religious  training.  All  good  training  is  a  prep- 
aration for  religious  training.  The  learning  that  obedi- 
ence brings  pleasure,  and  disobedience  brings  pain,  and 
other  things  along  this  line,  prepare  the  mind  for 
religious  training. 

Definite  Time  for  Religious  Training.     But,  besides 
this,  the  mother  must  give  definite  training  in  religious 


CHILD  TRAINING  219 

matters.  Every  mother  should  have  a  definite  period 
some  time  during  the  week  for  religious  instruction.  In 
those  homes  where  the  subject  of  how  to  make  Sunday 
afternoon  a  pleasant  and  profitable  period  for  the  children 
is  made  prominent,  the  mother  uses  a  portion  of  this 
time  for  systematic  religious  instruction.  Many  portions 
of  the  Bible  are  of  untold  value  for  accurate  memory 
drill.  Many  of  our  bible  houses  and  Sunday  school  pub- 
lishing companies  issue  scripture  selections  topically  ar- 
ranged.1 Also,  there  are  some  good  modern  catechisms 
in  which  religious  history  and  precepts  are  collected  and 
adapted  for  personal  home  use.  If  exercises  of  this  kind 
appeal  to  the  child  as  too  tedious  for  enjoyment,  the 
mother  can  easily  overcome  this  condition  and  make  the 
child  look  forward  to  the  study  time,  by  always  following 
the  drill  with  an  hour  of  interesting  reading  aloud  to  the 
child.  The  reading  can  be  varied  by  story  telling,  which 
will  often  run  on  into  a  quiet  chat  and  expressions  of 
personal  opinion  which  bring  great  joy  and  help  to  both 
mother  and  child. 

The  more  carefully  the  child  is  trained  in  his  religious 
life  now,  the  more  ready  he  will  be  to  meet  the  later 
phases  of  it.  The  question  is  not  so  much,  "When  shall 
religious  training  be  begun?"  but  "Of  what  kind  shall 
it  be?"  In  other  words,  what  is  to  be  your  aim  in  the 
religious  training  of  your  child?  Professor  Coe  gives 
his  ideal  for  the  ultimate  aim  of  training  as  follows : 
"The  child  shall  ultimately,  through  choice  and  habit,  be 
controlled  by  the  principle  of  love  to  God  and  love  to 

1  Dr.  W.  H.  Day,  946  S.  Union  Ave.,  Los  Angeles,   California. 
Dr.  C  H.  Richards,  cor.  4th  Ave.  &  22d  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


220  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

his  fellow  men.     He  shall  see  and  feel  that  this  principle 
gives  to  life  its  meaning  and  value." 

Religious  Services  in  the  Home.  We  have  spoken  very 
briefly  of  two  ways  of  giving  religious  culture  in  the 
home;  viz.,  by  personal  example  and  by  direct  instruction. 
There  is  a  third  very  important  way,  which,  although 
indirect,  has  a  deep  significance  in  the  child's  develop- 
ment. I  refer  to  formal  religious  services  in  the  home. 
The  child,  while  perhaps  not  directly  conscious  of  it 
himself,  is  very  sensitive  to  these  things.  These  services 
include  the  daily  blessing  at  meal  time,  family  worship, 
and  the  child's  own  daily  prayer.1  In  the  strenuous  life 
of  the  present  day  it  often  seems  impossible,  even  in 
Christian  families,  to  get  the  family  together  for  the 
briefest  possible  prayer  service.  A  few  verses  from  the 
Bible  and  the  Lord's  prayer  or  twenty-third  Psalm  at 
the  breakfast  table  is  a  splendid  way  to  begin  the  day. 
If  the  family  are  not  all  present,  the  service  will  surely 
be  of  value  to  those  who  are  there.  These  simple  Chris- 
tian services,  which  seem  so  unimportant  and  which  are 
so  easily  omitted,  are  of  fundamental  importance  in  the 
child's  future.  They  remind  him  of  the  constant  pres- 
ence of  the  Divine  Being  and  develop  an  attitude  of  mind 
which  will  prove  an  anchor  in  times  of  doubt  and  dis- 
couragement. 

Church  Attendance.  The  question  of  religious  serv- 
ices in  the  home  leads  to  the  subject  of  attendance  upon 
religious  services  outside  the  home.  In  every  Christian 
family  the  question  arises  as  to  what  extent  the  children 
should  attend  church.  In  this  respect  I  believe  the  child 

1  Coe,  Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  p.  284. 


CHILD  TRAINING  221 

should  conform  to  the  custom  of  the  family.  Professor 
Coe  says  that  the  family  as  a  whole,  and  not  the  indi- 
vidual, should  be  the  unit  of  church  attendance.  On 
the  part  of  the  children  there  will  often  be  remonstrance. 
They  declare  they  do  not  understand  the  sermon;  they 
get  tired  sitting  so  long,  and  many  other  things.  The 
great  majority  of  parents  allow  themselves  to  be  con- 
vinced by  the  reasoning  of  the  youngsters,  with  the  result 
that  our  church  pews  are  too  frequently  childless.  But 
there  is  always  a  great  deal  in  the  service  that  they  do 
understand,  and  an  excellent  way  for  them  to  learn  to 
understand  sermons  is  to  keep  hearing  them.1  Apart 
from  the  religious  phase  of  church  attendance,  it  is  prob- 
ably the  only  opportunity  which  the  child  has,  and  often 
the  adult  as  well,  of  hearing  during  the  week  a  connected 
discourse  in  good  form. 

After  all,  the  church  is  an  excellent  place  in  which  to 
be  on  Sunday.  The  child  who  is  in  church  a  great  deal 
will  find  it  harder  to  get  very  far  away  from  that  for 
which  the  church  stands,  than  the  one  who  enters  it  but 
seldom.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  habits  of  church 
attendance  and  of  Sunday  observance  during  these  early 
years  fix  a  child's  character.  I  only  wish  they  did.  The 
way  of  the  parent  would  then  be  comparatively  easy.  I 
simply  mean  that  the  boy  and  the  girl  who  have  attended 
church  regularly  with  their  parents  are  well  started  in 
the  right  direction,  and  the  chances  are  greatly  in  favor 
of  their  keeping  to  it,  or  of  ultimately  returning  to  it 
should  they  ever  stray  away. 

The  Sunday  School.     The  Sunday  school  is  one  of  the 

1  Coe,  Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  p.  217. 


222  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

church's  chief  agencies  for  the  religious  education  of  the 
young.  When  manned  with  competent  and  sympathetic 
teachers,  it  is  a  mighty  force  for  good.  But  no  one  who 
has  not  been  engaged  in  Sunday  school  work  knows  how 
hard  it  is  to  get  good  teachers.  We  have  all  seen  Sunday 
school  classes  in  which  there  is  no  discipline,  very  little 
real  instruction,  and  in  which  the  bad  influence  of  mis- 
chievous members  of  the  class  outweighs  the  negative 
influence  of  a  weak,  inexperienced,  or  incompetent  teacher. 
The  mother's  first  duty  should  be  to  find  out  what  sort 
of  teacher  her  boy  or  girl  is  to  have  in  Sunday  school — 
not  merely  whether  the  teacher  is  a  good  man  or  woman, 
bait  whether  he  or  she  is  a  real  teacher,  competent  and 
able  to  influence  the  class  for  good.  If  these  conditions 
are  met,  the  Sunday  school  will  be  a  great  help  in  the 
religious  training  of  your  child;  if  they  are  not  met,  you 
will  do  better  to  teach  the  child  at  home,  regardless  of 
what  your  pastor,  or  Sunday  school  superintendent,  or 
church  friends  may  say  or  think  about  it. 

Conscience.  In  closing  the  chapter,  I  want  to  return 
for  a  moment  to  the  subject  of  conscience.  Occasionally 
a  child  is  found  who  seems  to  be  wilfully  stifling  his 
conscience.  He  does  not  respond  to  the  ordinary  appeals 
nor  to  the  ordinary  discipline  of  the  home.  He  continues 
to  commit  wrongs  for  which  no  suitable  punishment  lies 
within  the  power  of  the  parent.  The  pleasure  received 
from  the  wrong  doing  seems  to  be  greater  than  the  pain 
from  the  punishment.  Hence  the  punishment  does  not 
serve  as  a  deterrent.  Such  a  child  may  sometimes  be 
roused  to  a  sense  of  right  by  a  stirring  appeal  to  the 
fundamental  laws  of  the  moral  world.  The  following 


CHILD  TRAINING  223 

will  suggest  the  line  of  approach :  "What  you  have  done 
is  wrong.  That  you  say  you  do  not  care,  does  not  affect 
the  wrongness  of  it.  That  you  are  indifferent  to  the 
punishment  given  you  by  your  parent  or  teacher  does 
not  affect  the  wrongness.  Whether  or  not  you  receive 
any  punishment  at  the  present  time  does  not  affect  the 
wrongness  of  it.  Wrong  is  wrong,  no  matter  who  does 
it.  The  bad  effect  upon  your  character  of  this  wrong 
doing  and  wrong  thinking  is  absolutely  certain.  This 
bad  effect  upon  your  own  life  and  character  will  be  an 
infinitely  greater  punishment  than  anything  which  could 
be  done  to  you  here."  If,  by  some  such  means  as  this, 
the  child  can  be  impressed  with  the  idea  that  the  responsi- 
bility for  his  wrong  act  rests  upon  and  will  react  upon 
himself  he  may  be  roused  from  a  seeming  indifference 
to  an  active  realization  of  moral  values.  Every  child  is 
a  living  soul,  a  conscious  activity,  and  our  aim  should  be 
so  to  train  him  that  he  will  come  to  think  of  himself  as 
he  ought  to  be,  and  to  put  himself  in  the  attitude  of 
striving  to  become  what  he  ought  to  be. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  USE  IN  CLUB  STUDY 

1.  What  is  the  true  significance  of  the  home? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  fundamental  qualities  necessary  in  the 
parent? 

3.  What  is  the  child's  first  training? 

4.  Give  an  instance  where  you  have  known  a  child  to  be  in- 
fluenced through  imitations  of  a  person  outside  his  own  family. 

5.  How  may  the  mother  train  through  habit? 

6.  How  is  obedience  required  in  training  the  attention? 

7.  Sum  up  the  discussion  on  attention. 

8.  What  is  the  moral  phase  of  habit? 


224 


STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 


9.     What  is  the  will?    Give  different  ideas  about  it. 

10.  What  are  some  of  the  forms  of  punishment  mentioned  here? 

11.  How  may  training  in  its  narrower  sense  be  classified?     De- 
scribe the  personal  and  social  appeal. 

12.  Mention  a  case  where  you  have  known  this  to  be  used,    Was 
it  successful? 

13.  Explain  the  appeal  to  reason.    Why  does  this  sometimes  fail? 

14.  What  is  the  function  of  the  home  in  the  matter  of  religious 
training? 

15.  What  is  said  here  about  the  child's  first  idea  of  God  and  of 
right  and  wrong? 

16.  Show  the  value  of  regular  time  for  religious  instruction  in 
the  home. 

17.  Why  should  there  be  religious  services  in  the  home? 

18.  Why  should  children  attend  church? 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY 
i.    THE  APPROACH  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

As  we  follow  the  progress  of  the  child  in  the  present 
chapter  we  find  that  he  is  growing  large  and  strong  in 
body  and  is  developing  certain  mental  traits  which  are 
new  to  us.  In  other  words,  he  is  coming  to  the  all-im- 
portant period  of  his  life  known  as  adolescence.  If,  as 
Professor  Lancaster  says,  the  hygienic  treatment  of  boys 
at  adolescence  has  been  almost  criminally  neglected,  it 
is  because  the  mothers  have  not  known  what  to  do  and 
how  to  do  it. 

Aim  of  the  Discussion.  Believing  that  the  mother  will 
be  able  to  do  her  part  at  this  time  more  efficiently  if  she 
has  a  broader  knowledge  of  what  is  involved  in  it,  both 
for  the  child  and  for  the  race,  an  effort  will  be  made  in 
the  present  chapter  to  gather  together  some  of  the  re- 
sults of  recent  investigation  and  study  upon  this  period 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them  easily  available.  In  order 
to  discuss  more  fully  and  systematically  certain  problems 
that  apply  to  the  sexes,  we  shall  adopt  a  policy  of  segre- 
gation at  this  point  and  devote  a  chapter  to  each  sex  in 
turn.  Much,  however,  that  appears  in  these  two  chapters 
applies  with  equal  force  to  either  the  adolescent  boy  or 
the  adolescent  girl. 

What  is  Adolescence?    What,  then,  is  adolescence? 

225 


226  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

and  by  what  signs  may  we  know  of  its  coming?  The 
word  adolescence  means  a  "growing  up  to,"  and  is  applied 
to  the  time  in  the  child's  life  when  he  approaches  matur- 
ity. This  period  is  somewhere  between  the  eleventh  and 
the  twentieth  year.  Adolescent  symptoms  will  not  be 
expected  to  continue  during  all  these  years,  at  least  not 
continuous  symptoms  of  the  same  nature,  but  the  ado- 
lescent years  will  be  included  broadly  within  these  limits. 
The  child  who  becomes  adolescent  early  will  probably 
reach  maturity  early,  while  the  child  who  shows  no  ado- 
lescent symptoms  until  later  will  be  later  in  reaching  his 
final  development.  In  a  general  way  adolescence  is  de- 
scribed as  the  boundary  line,  or  better,  boundary  period, 
between  childhood  and  maturity.  Adolescence  is  quite 
the  most  critical  and  difficult  age  to  deal  with.  Little 
by  little  new  forces  have  been  creeping  into  the  life  of 
the  child.  The  changes  may  have  come  very  gradually 
or  they  may  have  come  suddenly.  When  they  come 
gradually  it  is  easier  for  both  parent  and  child,  but  they 
are  none  the  less  significant  on  that  account.  Some  day 
you  look  into  the  eyes  of  what  you  thought  was  your 
little  boy  or  girl  and  you  see  looking  out  of  them  the  free 
spirit  of  a  new  personality.  But  we  can  hardly  help 
being  anxious,  when  we  realize  that  this  new  individual, 
who  is  filled  with  the  spirit  of  independence,  is  still  only 
-a  child  in  foresight  and  judgment.1  All  the  child's  pre- 
vious life  seems  to  have  been  a  preparation  for  this  period. 
As  it  gradually  leads  up  to  and  prepares  to  merge  into 
adolescence  there  is,  as  it  were,  a  gathering  together  of 
forces  in  preparation  for  the  approaching  expansion. 

1  Forbush,  The  Boy  Problem,  p.  31. 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  227 

Professor  Lancaster  says,  suggestively,  ' 'However  we 
may  look  upon  the  origin  of  the  human  mind,  it  is  easy 
to  conceive  that  mind  first  awoke  to  self -consciousness 
at  the  adolescent  period  of  the  first  man."  * 

Adolescence  is  a  time  of  new  and  large  possibilities, 
but,  unfortunately,  while  there  is  the  possibility  of  better 
things  than  ever  before,  there  is  also  the  possibility  of 
worse  things.  It  is,  therefore,  a  time  of  grave  responsi- 
bility for  .the  mother.  Professor  Carman,  in  his  lecture 
entitled  Bringing  Up  a  Boy,  has  said,  "A  crisis  occurs 
in  a  boy's  life  early  in  his  teens.  His  destiny  is  deter- 
mined by  the  discipline  and  instruction  he  receives  at  this 
time." 

The  Mother's  Preparation.  It  goes  without  saying  that 
every  mother  has  an  imperative  duty  towards  her  son  as 
he  approaches  this  important  period  in  his  development. 
Nature  has  done  her  part  in  preparing  the  boy's  body, 
the  mother  must  be  doing  her  part  in  preparing  his  mind 
for  all  of  these  new  experiences.  There  are  many  things 
which  the  mother  can  do  because  she  is  the  mother,  and 
because  her  mind  is  mature  while  the  mind  of  the  boy  is 
yet  immature.  The  mother,  through  her  study,  comes 
to  see  that  the  adolescent  boy  is  about  to  acquire  new 
powers.  Before,  he  was  simply  an  individual.  Now  he 
is  becoming  a  part  of  the  race,  because  he  is  acquiring 
the  power  of  conserving  it.  To  the  mother  who  has  duly 
prepared  herself  for  her  child's  adolescence,  its  appear- 
ance will  bring  the  same  mysterious  thrill  which  she  felt 
when  she  first  saw  the  child  as  a  new-born  babe.  It  has 

1  E.  C.  Lancaster,  Psychology  and  Pedology  of  Adolescence,  Fed. 
Seminary,  Vol.  I,  p.  196. 


228  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

been  said  in  this  connection,  "When  a  baby  is  to  be  born, 
preparations  for  its  advent  are  carefully  made.  But  when, 
in  future  years,  the  most  critical  time  comes  when  the 
child  is  to  be  re-born,  a  man  or  a  woman,  it  is  rare  that 
intelligent  suggestions  or  wise  words  of  counsel  tell  him 
or  her  of  the  importance  of  this  period." 

The  Theoretical  Part.  This  preparation  on  the  part 
of  the  mother  includes  two  things:  i.  The  preparation 
of  the  mother  herself.  2.  The  preparation  of  her  boy. 
The  preparation  of  the  mother  must  be  gained  through 
reading  and  study.  This  is  the  theoretical  part  of  her 
work.  The  skillful  physician,  before  he  goes  out  to  prac- 
tice, learns,  as  we  say,  "all  that  is  in  the  books."  For 
the  earnest  student  mother  there  will  be  need  to  gain  a 
clear  understanding  of  many  scientific  facts  from  the 
standpoint  of  biology,  physiology,  anatomy,  and  psychol- 
ogy. A  broad  knowledge  of  general  laws  ought  to  make 
any  particular  application  of  these  laws  a  very  simple  and 
easy  matter.  We  often  say  of  a  teacher,  that  in  order 
to  teach  well  he  must  know  vastly  more  than  he  has  to 
teach.  So,  also,  in  the  case  of  the  mother,  she  must 
know  more  of  child-study  than  enough  to  meet  the  actual 
questions  that  arise  day  by  day. 

Among  other  things  the  mother  should  have  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  sexual  physiological  changes  which  come  with 
adolescence.  The  special  organs  of  sex  have  existed  in 
an  embryonic  condition  ever  since  birth.  The  mother's 
responsibility  at  first  was  limited  to  the  care  of  the  ex- 
ternal parts,  to  see  that  cleanliness  and  privacy  were 
maintained.  Adolescence  indicates  by  its  very  name  that 
the  time  is  at  hand  when  the  sexual  organs,  which  are 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  229 

hidden  within  the  body,  are  to  develop  and  assume  a 
definite  place  in  the  system.  As  will  be  pointed  out  a 
little  later,  the  influence  of  these  organs  is  not  limited  to 
the  physical  part  of  the  individual.  Their  influence  over 
the  mind  is  supreme.  A  careful  explanation  of  what 
these  parts  are,  their  growth  and  their  uses,  will  be  given 
under  the  discussion  of  the  physical  manifestations  of 
adolescence. 

Delayed  Preparation.  Much  effort  is  wasted  by  the 
mother  during  the  time  of  actual  adolescence,  much  that 
is  good  and  true  and  earnest,  because  she  has  not  made 
proper  preparations  for  it  at  an  earlier  period.  This 
preparation  is  easily  ignored  and  neglected.  The  signs 
of  the  approaching  change  are  sometimes  so  slight  or  so 
hidden  that  the  mother,  if  she  thinks  about  it  at  all,  per- 
suades herself  that  there  is  no  need  of  her  thinking  about 
it  yet. 

Alas  for  those  mothers  who  have,  with  their  children, 
sailed  peacefully  over  the  pre-adolescent  years! — thank 
fortune,  there  are  a  few  years  of  peaceful  sailing — but 
have  failed  to  equip  themselves  for  the  period  of  storm 
and  stress  which  is  to  follow;  the  period  of  troubled 
waters,  when  whole  days  are  passed  with  hearts  aching 
and  anxious,  and  the  tears  are  only  just  below  the  sur- 
face ;  the  period  when  the  boy  who  used  to  be  affectionate, 
kind,  and  confidential  is  rough  and  rude,  and  the  girl 
who  used  to  be  sweet,  loving  and  patient,  is  irritable, 
impudent,  and  troublesome.  Alas,  I  say,  for  the  mothers 
who  reach,  unawares  and  unprepared,  this  difficult  and 
trying  period! 

The  Boy's  New  Needs,     The  river  of  the  boy's  life  is 


230 


STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 


now  widening  out  towards  the  ocean.  While  heretofore 
he  has  been  under  the  safe  shelter  of  the  home,  he  will 
soon  find  himself  his  own  pilot,  steering  an  independent 
craft.  He  has  but  little  knowledge  of  himself  just  at  a 
time  when  there  is  so  much  to  be  known.  He  needs 
careful  teaching  in  regard  to  his  own  physical  possibili- 
ties. In  addition  to  this  instruction,  there  was  never  a 
time  when  he  was  in  greater  need  of  love,  patience,  and 
sympathy.  He  may  seem  at  times  to  reject  these  offer- 
ings in  unexpected  ways,  unexpected  as  much  to  himself 
as  to  you.  But  never  cease  on  that  account  to  bestow 
them  unsparingly. 

Take  the  Boy  Seriously.  Do  not  allow  yourself  to 
make  fun  of  any  of  the  evidences  of  adolescence.  No 
matter  how  much  the  boy  eats,  no  matter  how  immense 
are  his  hands  and  feet,  take  it  all  as  a  matter  of  course 
and  something  to  be  proud  of.  There  is  at  this  time  a 
keen  sensitiveness  to  anything  like  ridicule,  and  there  is 
danger  that  the  boy  will  not  show  his  full  size  unless 
encouraged  to  do  so,  but  will  stoop  and  slouch  in  order 
to  appear  smaller  than  he  really  is.  The  adolescent  boy 
should  not  only  walk  straight,  but  should  always  sit 
erect.  The  bones  of  the  pelvis,  and  even  those  of  the 
thorax,  are  still  in  a  formative  state  and  may  be  pressed 
out  of  shape  if  a  wrong  position  is  habitually  taken. 
Make  the  boy  as  comfortable  as  you  can,  for  comfort 
increases  height  and  weight.  Foster  and  encourage  all 
tendencies  to  work  with  the  hands,  as  carpentering,  gar- 
dening, and  all  kinds  of  gymnastics.  Too  much  cannot 
be  said  in  favor  of  the  life  in  the  country  at  this  time. 
But  be  careful  of  the  boy's  companions,  for  a  bad  com- 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  231 

panion  may  effect  more  moral  deterioration  than  the  good 
air  and  healthful  occupation  will  accomplish  for  the 
physical  upbuilding. 

2.    THE  PARENTS'  DUTY  TO  THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY 

Frankness.  This  is  the  time  when  one  of  the  parents 
should  talk  frankly  with  the  boy  about  the  significance 
of  the  changes  which  are  taking  place  in  him,  and  warn 
him  against  the  temptations  which  will  beset  him.  Some- 
times the  father  can  do  this  best,  often  it  is  best  done  by 
the  mother.  Whether  father  or  mother  does  it  should 
depend  upon  the  degree  of  confidence  and  sympathy  which 
the  boy  feels  toward  each,  and  upon  the  ability  of  either 
to  put  the  case  to  him  effectively.  One  of  the  parents 
must  surely  do  it  if  they  have  any  regard  for  the  boy's 
highest  interests.  If  they  have  been  frank  with  him  as  a 
young  child  and  have  told  him  something  of  the  mystery 
of  life,  it  will  be  much  easier  to  talk  to  him  now.  Then, 
too,  the  child  who  has  been  told  the  truth  in  these  matters 
of  physiology  has  not  the  same  prying  curiosity  and  tend- 
ency to  vulgar  interpretation  so  often  found  in  those  who 
have  been  taught  to  consider  the  question  a  forbidden 
topic. 

The  Origin  of  Life.  Let  us  assume  for  a  moment  that 
your  little  boy,  long  before  he  was  adolescent,  learned 
from  your  lips  that  the  baby,  before  any  one  saw  it  here, 
grew  from  a  tiny  speck,  in  a  small  nest  under  its  mother's 
heart.  At  the  proper  time  it  was  born  into  the  world. 
This  satisfies  the  child  for  the  time.  But  as  he  grows 
older  he  is  likely  to  inquire  as  to  the  father's  part  in  the 
origin  of  the  child. 


232 


STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 


Danger  of  Evasion  and  Reticence.  Here,  again,  the 
rational  interest  is  best  satisfied  by  the  truth.  To  tell  a 
lie  is  corrupting.  To  evade  the  question  is  to  send  the 
eager  child  to  some  unfit  teacher  and  to  destroy  confi- 
dence between  parent  and  child.  There  is  nothing  shame- 
ful in  the  relation,  and  it  should  never  be  treated  as  a 
mystery  of  doubtful  significance.  The  child  owes  his 
very  being  to  the  father  as  well  as  to  the  mother,  and  he 
should  be  told  this  by  father  or  mother  when  asked. 
Perhaps  this  general  statement  will  meet  the  demands 
of  the  searching  intellect  for  several  years.  After  that 
the  whole  truth  must  be  told  in  season.  The  young 
inquirer  should  be  trained  to  seek  this  kind  of  informa- 
tion only  from  parents.  The  time  of  this  information 
must  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  child  and  his  ques- 
tions. The  reticence  of  children  in  speaking  of  these 
things  to  their  parents  is  not  due  to  any  sense  of  moral 
wrong,  but  simply  to  an  artificially  induced  fear  of 
offending  elders  for  some  mysterious  and  unknown  reason. 

Professor  Coe  says,  "The  facts  and  laws  of  nature, 
particularly  the  mystery  of  generation  and  birth,  are  in- 
cluded in  the  demand  for  information.  What  response 
shall  we  make  to  this  demand  ?  Just  as  f  asjt  as  the  child's 
spontaneous  interest  calls  for  information  a  perfectly  hon- 
est and  open  response  should  be  made.  To  evade  or 
deceive  is  not  merely  to  put  away  a  troublesome  question ; 
it  is  to  put  away  the  child's  personality  also.  An  honest, 
painstaking  answer  to  a  question  gives  much  more  than 
information;  it  gives  a  self.  This  requires  a  high  type 
of  courage.  To  reveal  one's  self  thus  to  a  child  is  like 
standing  before  the  judgment  bar  of  God,  Blessed  is 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  233 

the  child  who  receives  such  answers  to  his  questions  that 
he  never  ceases,  during  all  his  developing  years,  to  bring 
his  problems  directly  to  his  parents. 

3.    GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  PERIOD 

Having  spoken  of  the  nature  of  adolescence  and  the 
necessary  equipment  of  the  parents  in  order  to  deal  with 
it  adequately,  we  will  now  consider  the  general  charac- 
teristics of  this  period.  The  period,  as  a  whole,  may  for 
convenience  be  divided  into  three  shorter  and  more  or 
less  overlapping  periods  as  follows :  First — Early  adoles- 
cence or  puberty.  This  covers  the  period  from  the  elev- 
enth to  the  fourteenth  year.  The  characteristics  of  this 
period  are  largely  but  not  wholly  physical.  There  are 
evidently  beginnings  of  the  great  mental  changes  which 
come  later  in  the  period.  Second — The  middle  adolescent 
period.  This  may  be  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  eighteenth 
year.  The  adolescent  characteristics  of  this  period  are 
both  mental  and  physical.  Third — Later  adolescence. 
This  extends  from  the  eighteenth  year  onward.  Its  mani- 
festations are  mental  and  spiritual. 

The  Physical  Changes.  While  it  cannot  be  definitely 
known  whether  the  first  stirring  of  adolescence  is  physical 
or  mental,  it  is  probable  that  the  first  visible  signs  will 
be  physical.  Therefore  we  may  call  the  general  charac- 
teristics of  this  period  physical.  Any  time  after  your  boy 
is  eleven  or  twelve  (with  some  boys  even  earlier)  look 
for  unusual  physical  manifestations;  one  of  the  earliest 
of  these  is  rapid  growth,  especially  of  the  limbs.  Pro- 
fessor Lancaster  calls  our  attention  to  the  fact  that  some- 
times this  rapid  growth  occurs  before  the  child  is  really 

'\ 


234  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

adolescent.  In  this  case  it  is  likely  to  be  accompanied 
with  ill-health.  The  rapid  growth  during  adolescence, 
however,  is  perfectly  normal  and  to  be  expected.  It 
sometimes  seems  as  if  the  size  of  hands  and  feet  double 
within  a  few  months. 

Height  and  Weight.  Mention  was  just  made  of  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  limbs  at  this  time.  Hence  the  first 
noticeable  increase  is  usually  in  height,  caused  mainly  by 
this  lengthening  of  the  legs.  In  order  to  meet  the  added 
length  of  the  legs,  the  muscles,  nerves,  and  arteries  must 
all  be  stretched.  The  boy  is  awkward.  Through  this 
increase  in  height  his  weight  has  outgrown  his  strength. 
The  muscles  grow  large  first  and  strong  later.  Hence 
the  boy  of  fifteen  to  seventeen  lacks  the  strength  which 
he  seems  to  have.  He  stumbles  and  shambles  and  thinks 
he  is  somehow  to  blame  for  it  all.  It  is  probably  true 
that  many  adults  share  his  opinion.  More  often  than 
not  he  knows  that  his  mother  thinks  he  is  clumsy  even 
though  she  does  not  say  so. 

Internal  Organs.  The  size  of  the  internal  organs  does 
not  keep  pace  with  the  external  growth.  Less  oxygen 
is  taken  into  the  system  and  hence  there  is  more  unre- 
moved  waste.  The  ratio  of  the  chest  girth  to  the  standing 
height  falls.  Besides  these  changes  in  muscles  and  nerves, 
there  has  already  been  mentioned  the  .very  significant 
growth  and  development  of  the  organs  of  sex. 

Organs  of  Sex.  Besides  the  external  parts,  which  in- 
clude the  organ  for  urinal  excretion  and  the  scrotum, 
there  is  the  more  important  internal  organism.  First  of 
all,  incased  in  the  tissues  constituting  the  scrotum,  are  two 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  235 

small  bodies  known  as  the  testicles.  Each  of  these  is 
connected  by  the  spermatic  cords  with  the  seminal  vesicles, 
or  reservoirs,  at  the  base  of  the  bladder.  Up  to  the 
adolescent  period  these  organisms  seem  to  have  had  no 
particular  part  in  the  life  of  the  body.  It  would  seem  as 
if  they  might  as  well  not  be  there.  But  experience  has 
shown  that  if  any  harm  comes  to  them  or  if  their  devel- 
opment is  checked,  it  will  become  evident  at  adolescence, 
and  both  mind  and  body  will  fail  to  reach  their  normal 
strength.  At  the  adolescent  period,  the  testicles  develop 
and  begin  to  secrete  a  fluid,  which,  as  fast  as  it  is  secreted, 
is  passed  up  through  the  spermatic  cords  into  the  reser- 
voirs at  the  base  of  the  bladder.  Here  it  unites  with 
another  fluid  which  has  been  secreted  in  these  sacs.  A 
portion  of  this  fluid  is  absorbed  and  enters  the  system, 
where  it  exercises  a  profound  influence  upon  mental  and 
physical  development.  When  adolescence  is  thoroughly 
established,  emissions  of  this  fluid  occur  at  more  or  less 
regular  periods  of  from  three  to  five  weeks.  They  occur 
at  night  and  usually  during  sleep.  This  manifestation 
may  be  omitted  for  several  weeks,  and  then  occur  either 
for  one  or  for  several  successive  nights.  These  facts 
are  purely  normal  and  physiological,  and  may  fairly  be 
treated  as  are  other  facts  about  the  body.  The  rapid 
growth  of  the  external  parts  often  results  in  an  irritation 
which  is  very  annoying  to  the  boy,  and  if  not  understood 
will  be  the  cause  of  bad  habits.  The  application  of  any 
simple  salve,  such  as  vaseline,  or,  better  still,  a  bathing 
of  the  parts  in  kerosene,  will  relieve  the  irritation  and 
save  both  mother  and  child  from  much  anxiety. 


236  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

4.    LATER  PHYSICAL  CHANGES 

As  the  boy  gets  into  what  was  noted  as  the  second 
period  of  adolescence,  we  find  that  the  physical  changes, 
while  not  by  any  means  completed,  are  less  disturbing. 
There  is  a  large  muscular  power,  enlarged  heart  and 
lungs,  well  oxygenated  blood,  driven  at  high  pressure. 
There  is  rapid  combustion  in  the  muscles  and  especially 
in  the  brain.  The  waste  products  are  disposed  of. 

Changes  in  the  Brain.  The  brain  has  now  reached  its 
full  size  and  weight.  It  would  seem,  from  the  usual 
manifestations  in  the  way  of  behavior,  that  there  must 
be  decided  changes  taking  place  in  the  brain.  There 
surely  are  changes,  but  so  far  it  has  not  been  possible  to 
determine  with  any  definiteness  what  organic  changes 
have  taken  place  in  it.  During  childhood  there  were 
certain  uncoordinated  associative  areas  of  the  brain  left 
open  for  development,  through  individual  experience.  It 
is  thought  by  some  that  during  adolescence  there  may 
be  an  increase  of  these  associative  fibers  with  the  result 
of  increasing  the  number  of  brain  centers.  It  is  agreed 
that  some  changes  must  take  place  in  the  brain  at  this 
time,  to  account  for  the  changes  in  mental  manifestations. 
But  it  has  taken  years  of  serious  study  and  investigation 
to  gain  even  an  approximate  idea  of  what  may  be  taking 
place  in  the  adolescent  brain.  We  know  that  there  is  an 
intimate  connection  between  mental  and  physical  develop- 
ment. There  seems  to  be  an  especially  delicate  connec- 
tion between  the  organs  of  reproduction  and  the  brain, 
although  just  what  this  is  it  has  not  been  possible  to 
determine. 

All  Organs  Stronger.     It  is  to  be  kept  in  mind  that, 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  237 

with  the  growth  of  the  parts  which  are  external  and 
visible,  there  is  a  corresponding  growth  of  the  general 
internal  organs.  Every  organ  of  the  body  seems  to  wake 
up  and  vie  with  its  fellows.  The  nutrition  which  is  taken 
into  the  body  is  in  a  sense  contested  for  by  the  different 
organs.  If  the  nutrition  is  not  sufficient,  there  is  danger 
that  those  parts  which  gain  the  ascendency  will  grow  at 
the  expense  of  the  slower  ones,  thus  leaving  some  particu- 
lar weak  part.  Growing  pains  are  produced  by  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  bones  over  the  muscles. 

Tobacco  and  Liquor.  The  increasing  demand  for  nu- 
trition throughout  the  entire  body  often  gives  rise  to 
cravings  for  extra  and  unnatural  food.  The  habit  of 
using  tobacco  is  often  acquired  at  this  time  on  account 
of  this  unusual  craving.  Ask  an  adolescent  boy  how 
he  is  affected  by  the  smell  of  tobacco.  In  most  cases, 
if  he  is  honest,  he  will  tell  you  that  it  arouses  a  strong 
craving  to  use  it.  In  too  many  cases  this  craving  is  so 
strong  as  to  put  into  the  background  the  reasons  which 
have  been  given  to  him  for  not  using  it.  If  the  adoles- 
cent period  is  passed  without  the  tobacco  habit  being 
contracted,  it  is  by  the  exercise  of  greater  self-control 
than  we  as  adults  have  been  in  the  habit  of  giving  the 
boy  credit  for.  In  the  case  of  liquor  the  craving  may 
not  be  so  marked  unless  there  is  an  inherited  tendency 
in  that  direction.  But  if  the  boy  is  exposed  to  repeated 
temptations  to  the  use  of  liquor,  there  is  more  danger 
at  this  period  than  at  any  other.  If  he  was  normally 
strong  and  well  before  adolescence  his  health  will  prob- 
ably not  be  much  affected  by  this  change.  If  he  shows 
it  at  all  it  will  be  by  becoming  somewhat  listless  and  at 


238  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

times  displaying  that  "tired  feeling"  upon  which  patent 
medicine  venders  thrive.  But  a  boy  who  has  previously 
suffered  from  lack  of  nervous  force  may  show  his  ado- 
lescence by  an  excess  of  movement.  Twitching  of  the 
eyes,  mouth,  and  hands;  and  the  biting  of  the  finger 
nails  may  also  be  observed.  Such  symptoms  are  signifi- 
cant and  should  not  be  passed  over  lightly.  Plenty  of 
exercise  in  the  open  air,  good  food,  plenty  of  sleep,  and 
plenty  of  play  are  the  best  possible  restoratives  for  a 
defective  nervous  system  at  this  time. 

Change  in  Face.  While  all  these  changes  are  taking 
place  in  the  boy's  body,  there  is  often  a  marked  change 
in  the  expression  of  the  face.  This  comes  about  not 
only  by  the  new  mental  experiences  which  are  taking 
place,  but  because  the  bones  of  the  face  are  enlarging, 
thus  changing  the  proportion  of  the  features.  The  downy 
fuzz  on  the  boy's  upper  lip  and  below  his  ears  is  an 
indication  of  normal  adolescent  development. 

Behavior.  The  increase  in  growth  is  usually  and 
almost  unavoidably  accompanied  by  unpleasant  manifes- 
tations of  behavior  and  manners.  The  behavior  is  not 
now  so  much  the  crude  roughness  of  the  earlier  semi- 
animal  stage;  in  fact,  it  is  quite  outside  of  the  range  of 
language  to  describe  it.  It  varies  greatly  with  the  indi- 
vidual. In  some  boys  it  takes  the  form  of  a  blunt  and 
impulsive  roughness.  There  is,  sometimes,  undue  assert- 
iveness  at  this  time,  a  probable  reaction  against  the  em- 
barrassment of  the  awkward  feeling.  With  others  there 
is  a  super-sensitive  shyness.  Mother  Nature,  who  up 
to  this  time  has  carried  on  her  development  with  more 
or  less  regularity,  seems  now  to  be  using  more  unusual 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  239 

measures.  There  is  a  narrow  social  tendency;  that  is, 
the  boy  prefers  the  society  of  those  of  his  own  sex  and 
age.  He  cannot  tell  why,  he  simply  knows  that  he  feels 
more  at  home  with  them.  As  the  adolescent  period  ad- 
vances these  social  interests  show  a  tendency  to  broaden. 
Much  of  the  uncomfortable  shyness  which  burdened  him 
in  the  earlier  stages  seems  gradually  to  disappear.  There 
often  comes  a  growth  of  genuine  sentiment,  which  its 
owner  is  able  to  manage  with  considerable  adroitness,  and 
which  commands  the  respect  of  his  adult  friends. 

5.    THE  BOY'S  GREATEST  DANGER 

The  greatest  danger  which  threatens  the  boy  at  this 
period — and  it  is  one  which  affects  body,  mind,  and  char- 
acter— is  the  habit  of  onanism  or  self -pollution.  It  is 
reported  by  physicians  and  others  who  have  the  best 
means  of  knowing,  that  the  majority  of  boys  during  the 
adolescent  period  practice  this  vile  and  injurious  habit  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent.  It  can  hardly  be  otherwise,  if 
they  are  allowed  to  reach  the  time  of  temptation  with 
little  or  no  truthful  information  as  to  the  results  of  the 
practice.1  Many  young  men  lose  their  lives  each  year 
by  indulging  in  it  to  excess.  Many  more  become  idiotic 
or  insane.  Many  more,  who  escape  these  extremes, 
shorten  their  lives  and  devitalize  themselves,  falling  far 
short  of  what  they  might  otherwise  have  been,  both  phys- 
ically and  intellectually.  The  seminal  fluid  which  is 
thrown  off  artificially  in  the  habit  referred  to  is  charged 

1  Coe,  Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  p.  237. 
Kirkpatrick,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  p.  115. 
Tanner,  The  Child,  p.  62.     Forbush,  The  Boy  Problem,  p.  160. 


240  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

with  the  vitality  needed  for  the  building  up  of  the  body. 
Every  one  has  seen  an  electric  battery  which  has  spent 
its  force.  It  is  a  dead  thing.  So  the  body,  with  its 
splendid  vital  forces  wasted — not  to  speak  of  the  moral 
and  spiritual  degeneration  which  follows.  It  is  one  of 
the  tragedies  of  life. 

Persistence  of  Habit.  Although  the  ultimate  results 
of  the  habit  are  so  serious,  unfortunately  there  are  gen- 
erally no  immediate  and  apparent  effects.  Therefore  the 
boy  fancies  that  it  is  not  hurting  him,  and  continues  it 
until  he  has  lost  the  power  to  stop.  The  difficulties  of 
stopping  after  the  habit  has  once  become  fixed  are  great, 
because  it  not  only  weakens  the  body  but  also  enslaves 
the  will.  Dr.  Hall  speaks  of  the  physical  effects  as  slug- 
gishness of  heart  action  and  circulation,  seen  in  cold  ex- 
tremities, purple  and  dry  skin,  lassitude,  clammy  hands, 
anaemic  complexion,  dry  cought  and  many  digestive  trou- 
bles. He  refers  to  the  habit  as  the  scourge  of  the  human 
race. 

Mental  and  Moral  Effects.  Besides  its  physical  effects, 
it  induces  a  general  mental  and  moral  deterioration.  Se- 
cretiveness,  untruth  fulness,  hypocrisy,  timidity,  cowardice, 
all  follow  in  its  train.  The  power  of  self-control  and  of 
sympathy  are  often  extinguished.  The  resolution  to 
grapple  with  difficulties,  to  carry  out  work  begun,  is  sure 
to  decline.  There  is  a  lack  of  high  enthusiasms.  "Per- 
haps the  most  common  psychological  result,"  says  Dr. 
Hall,  "is  a  sense  of  unworthiness,  sin  and  pollution,  and 
the  serious  diminution  of  self-respect,  often  instinctively 
hidden  by  boisterous  self-assertion.  Consciousness  of  a 
vice  so  hated  and  despised  takes  away  the  joy  of  life. 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  241 

The  struggle  between  what  is  felt  to  be  right,  pure,  and 
honorable  and  the  lusts  of  the  flesh  is  not  infrequently 
overwhelming.  The  influences  which  work  against  abso- 
lute purity  at  this  time  seem  to  spring  from  the  prince  of 
darkness  and  his  abode."  x  This  psychic  struggle  of  the 
worse  against  the  better  personality  diverts  energy  which 
would  be  otherwise  available  for  study,  exercise,  and 
normal  growth. 

Increase  of  Crime.  We  must  view  with  alarm  the 
fact  that  juvenile  crime  is  constantly  on  the  increase,  and 
we  cannot  be  indifferent  when  we  learn  that  sex  perver- 
sion is  the  cause  of  much  of  it.2  Dr.  Hall  has  observed 
that  every  society  has  just  the  kind  and  number  of  crim- 
inals that  it  deserves.  What  is  deserved  by  parents  who 
allow  their  boys  to  become  slaves  to  this  filthy  and  de- 
basing habit  without  giving  them  a  word  of  warning? 
Dr.  Forbush  says,  "I  believe  that  sex  perversions  are  the 
most  common,  subtle,  and  dangerous  foes  that  threaten 
our  American  life.  These  perversions  usually  have  their 
root  and  acquire  their  dominion  in  adolescence,  when 
passion  is  most  active,  ignorance  most  great,  and  self- 
control  most  weak.  This  temptation  is  to  be  met  in  the 
home  by  stripping  the  subject  of  a  mystery  which  it  does 
not  possess,  by  revealing  frankly  and  simply  the  facts  of 
sex  as  a  part  of  general  physiology.  The  effect  of  self- 
abuse  upon  the  nerves,  endurance,  and  energy  of  the 
growing  boy  should  be  explained  and  contempt  expressed 
for  it  as  a  nasty  habit.  The  place  for  doing  this  work  is 
the  home.  It  is  strange  that  parents  should  be  willing 

1  Hall,  Adolescence. 

2  Hall,  Adolescence,  Vol.  I,  p.  325. 


242  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

that  stable  boys,  quacks,  and  villains  should  become  the 
instructors  and  guides  in  those  matters  which  have  so 
much  to  do  with  personal  purity,  the  morality  of  the 
commonwealth,  and  the  future  of  the  race."  1 

Jane  Addams  says  upon  this  subject,  "We  exalt  the 
love  of  the  mother  and  the  stability  of  the  home,  but  in 
regard  to  those  difficult  years  between  childhood  and 
maturity  we  beg  the  question  and,  unless  we  repress,  we 
do  nothing.  We  are  so  timid  and  inconsistent  that,  al- 
though we  declare  the  home  to  be  the  foundation  of 
society,  we  do  nothing  to  direct  the  force  upon  which  the 
continuity  of  the  home  depends.2 

6.    How  TO  CONQUER  THIS  DISASTROUS  HABIT 

Wise  Questioning.  Either  father  or  mother  should 
find  out  whether  the  boy  has  become  addicted  to  the  habit. 
Usually,  if  the  question  is  put  to  him  in  the  right  way, 
with  an  assurance  that  you  are  trying  to  help  him  and  not 
to  upbraid  or  scold  him,  he  will  tell  the  truth.  Tell  him 
what  the  habit  will  do  to  him  if  persisted  in.  Encourage 
him.  Do  not  scare  him,  but  make  him  see  that  it  is  for 
him  to  decide  whether  he  shall  be  a  strong  and  useful 
man,  or  a  weakling — or  worse.  It  is  a  test  of  his  will 
power.  He  must  overcome  the  habit  or  it  will  overcome 
him.  There  is  no  compromise.  If  he  conquers,  he  will 
come  out  of  the  struggle  stronger  for  the  experience. 

Cleanliness  and  Clothing.  Suggest  that  he  preserve 
absolute  cleanliness  of  the  sex  organs,  to  prevent  irrita- 
tion— washing  them  every  morning  as  regularly  as  he 

1  Forbush,  The  Boy  Problem,  pp.  159,  160. 

2  Jane  Addams,  Spirit  of  Youth  and  the  City  Streets,  pp.  29,  31. 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  243 

washes  his  face,  and  pulling  back  the  foreskin  to  remove 
all  accumulations.  Aside  from  this  he  should  leave  them 
absolutely  alone,  except  that,  when  strongly  tempted,  he 
may  sometimes  help  himself  to  overcome  the  impulse  by 
plunging  them  into  cold  water.1  A  cold  bath  every  morn- 
ing immediately  upon  rising  is  an  excellent  tonic,  not 
only  for  the  sex  organs  but  for  the  entire  body.  If  the 
boy  is  not  strong  enough  to  endure  it  at  once,  begin  with 
a  sitz-bath,  also  dashing  the  water  on  the  chest  and  neck. 
Avoid  too  warm  clothing  or  too  heavy  bed  clothing,  also 
hot  baths  and  anything  that  tends  to  heat  the  sex  organs. 
The  ganglion  especially  concerned  in  the  sex  instinct  is 
located  in  the  lower  part  of  the  back.  Hence  sleeping 
on  the  back,  or  with  the  back  against  anything  which 
induces  heat,  should  be  avoided.  Dr.  Griffith's  plan  of 
tying  an  empty  spool  to  the  back,  at  the  middle  of  the 
spine,  by  a  tape  passing  around  the  waist,  has  been  men- 
tioned in  another  connection.  It  will  also  prove  useful 
here.  The  period  immediately  after  waking  is  one  of 
temptation.  The  boy  who  does  not  wish  to  be  tempted 
will  make  it  a  practice  to  get  up  as  soon  as  he  wakes. 

Mental  Suggestion.  If  there  is  a  tendency  for  the 
boy's  thoughts  to  dwell  upon  his  body  more  than  is  best 
for  him,  suggest  that  he  interest  himself  in  something 
else  that  will  keep  his  mind  busy.  Making  plans  for 
future  effort  and  achievement  is  a  splendid  method  of 
keeping  undesirable  thoughts  out  of  the  mind.  Any  harm- 
less occupation  which  will  absorb  the  thoughts  and 
interests  will  be  useful. 

1  Dr.  Wm.  Lee  Howard,  Confidential  Chats  With  Boys,  p.  58. 


244  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

Testimony  of  a  Physkian.  A  short  time  ago  I  had 
occasion  to  give  an  address  in  a  neighboring  town  upon 
growth  and  education,  with  special  reference  to  the  ado- 
lescent period.  A  few  days  after  returning  home  I  re- 
ceived a  letter  from  a  prominent  physician  of  the  town 
where  the  address  was  given,  saying,  among  other  things, 
"I  should  like  to  have  told  the  members  of  the  conven- 
tion how  nearly  you  struck  the  keynote  in  regard  to  the 
true  way  to  solve  the  greatest  medical  and  social  question 
which  now  confronts  us.  The  great  question  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  in  the  medical  conventions  has  been  how  to 
impart  the  necessary  education  along  this  line.  The  youth 
of  that  period  of  life  is  being  educated  on  these  ques- 
tions clandestinely.  The  new  phase  of  the  disease  is,  that 
it  is  very  doubtful  if  it  is  ever  cured.  This  ought  to  set 
every  nerve  of  our  social  fabric  to  throbbing.  From 
the  mother  must  come  the  true  education  to  lead  a  pure 
life  and  the  warning  of  the  great  danger  which  follows 
the  transgression.  The  mother  can  reach  the  child,  on 
an  average,  better  than  the  father/' 

Companions.  Question  your  boy  also  about  his  com- 
panions and  what  their  habits  are.  These  companions 
exercise  a  vital  influence  upon  him  at  this  time.  If  they 
are  older  than  he,  they  are  especially  to  be  watched. 
Things  pass  between  boys  of  this  age  of  which  the  par- 
ents never  know.  An  older  boy  without  principle  or 
conscience  may  teach  to  younger  companions  habits  the 
disastrous  results  of  which  in  future  years  are  incalculable. 
Confidences  in  these  matters  must  be  considered  sacred 
and  not  told  as  ordinary  tales.  The  boy  who  under- 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  245 

stands  this  and  who  trusts  his  parents  will  give  them  his 
confidence. 

Reading  Matter.  If  you  find  it  impossible  to  talk  fully 
enough  or  frankly  enough  to  your  boy  upon  this  subject, 
you  may  place  in  his  hands  one  of  the  books  which  have 
been  written  to  teach  boys  the  essential  facts  of  sex  at 
this  period.  Confidential  Chats  with  Boys,  by  Dr.  Wm. 
Lee  Howard;  Almost  a  Man,  by  Mary  Wood  Allen,  and 
What  a  Young  Boy  Ought  to  Know,  by  Sylvanus  Stall, 
are  all  excellent.  The  last  named  is  intended  for  younger 
boys  than  the  first  and  would  not  appeal  as  strongly  to 
a  boy  of  more  than  twelve  or  thirteen.  Be  sure  to  read 
carefully  each  book  yourself  before  giving  it  to  the  boy. 
This  is  for  two  reasons :  First,  that  you  may  satisfy 
yourself  that  the  subject  is  treated  as  you  would  wish  it 
to  be  treated.  Second,  that  you  may  know  just  what  the 
boy  has  read  in  order  to  be  able  to  answer  any  questions 
which  he  may  raise. 

Another  Frightful  Evil.  As  to  improper  relations  with 
the  opposite  sex,  the  boy  should  be  made  to  see  that  this 
has  all  the  evils  of  the  solitary  habit  and  the  added  danger 
of  giving  him  a  venereal  disease  which  is  so  frightful  in 
its  effects  that  it  should  act  as  a  check  to  any  youth  when 
its  results  are  known.  This  disease  is  now  generally 
understood  to  be  incurable,  and,  though  its  outward  mani- 
festations may  be  removed,  it  remains  in  the  system, 
likely  at  any  time  to  appear — an  effectual  bar  to  marriage 
— or,  if  the  man  is  selfish  or  cruel  enough  to  marry,  a 
menace  to  his  wife  and  an  awful  heritage  to  his 
children. 


246  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

7.    MENTAL   PHASES  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

In  addition  to  all  the  manifestations  which  have  taken 
place  in  connection  with  the  adolescent  changes,  there 
is  a  group  of  characteristics  which  may  properly  be  classed 
as  mental.  These  mental  changes  make  themselves  known 
in  a  variety  of  ways.  There  is  at  this  time  a  noticeable 
change  in  the  boy's  general  bearing.  It  has  already  been 
said  that  there  is  a  change  in  the  features  and  expressions 
of  the  face.  This  change  in  facial  expression  is  almost 
sure  to  be  accompanied  by  a  change  in  character.  A 
curious  development  which  has  been  noted  as  taking  place 
at  this  time  is  the  appearance  of  what  is  known  as  an- 
cestral traits.  In  other  words,  there  is  a  strong  proba- 
bility that  during  the  adolescent  changes  the  boy  will 
develop  traits  of  character  similar  to  those  of  his  parents, 
his  grandparents,  or  even  more  remote  ancestors.1 

Mental  Confusion.  One  of  the  first  normal  mental 
signs  of  adolescence  is  mental  confusion.  Some  one  has 
said  of  this  manifestation,  "The  bond  between  the  mani- 
fold factors  of  the  ego  is  temporarily  lost."  The  par- 
ticular form  in  which  the  mental  confusion  appears  differs 
in  different  children.  The  manifestations  are  often  un- 
pleasant and  often  misunderstood.  The  boy  does  not 
understand  himself,  and  the  outcome  of  his  behavior  is 
often  quite  different  from  what  he  had  planned  it  to  be. 
It  is  difficult  for  the  adult  to  realize  this  condition,  since 
the  boy's  acts  have  all  the  appearance  of  being  rational 
and  in  a  certain  sense  they  are  so.  The  processes  of  the 
brain  are  dependent  upon  the  quality  of  the  blood  sup- 
plied to  it.  Just  as  sure  as  the  quality  of  the  light  from 

1  Lancaster,  Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol.  I,  p.  196. 


*         THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  247 

your  lamp  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  oil  upon  which 
the  wick  burns,  so  surely  does  mental  action,  especially 
in  the  growing  child,  depend  upon  the  quality  of  the 
blood  which  goes  to  the  brain.  Hence,  at  this  period 
especially,  the  supply  of  brain  nourishment  must  be  abun- 
dant and  of  the  best  quality..  If  this  mental  confusion 
of  the  adolescent  boy  is  understood  and  rightly  treated, 
it  will  disappear  in  good  time.  As  the  period  of  un- 
usually rapid  growth  draws  to  a  close,  the  new  brain  cor- 
relations become  adjusted  and  the  normal  supply  of  blood 
to  the  brain  is  re-established. 

Awakening  of  Individuality.  Another  mental  charac- 
teristic of  adolescence  is  the  awakening  of  individuality. 
The  boy  really  first  becomes  conscious  of  himself  at  this 
time.  He  looks  out  upon  the  universe  and  sees  it  no 
longer  as  a  collection  of  unrelated  things,  but  as  a  system 
in  which  he  occupies  a  place.  The  signs  of  this  change 
are  so  subtle  and  they  creep  into  the  boy's  consciousness 
so  gradually  that  their  coming  may  be  unnoticed.  But 
observe  the  conversation  of  your  adolescent  boy  and  you 
will  find  that,  while  before  he  talked  about  things  as  sep- 
arate and  unrelated  objects,  he  is  now  making  compari- 
sons. Men,  books,  countries,  achievements,  are  compared. 
It  is  not  an  accident  that  your  boy  is  thinking  in  this  way, 
but  an  indication  that  he,  all  unconscious  to  himself,  is 
following  the  natural  law  and  acquiring  the  mental 
breadth  and  power  of  manhood. 

Introspection.  Again,  introspection  is  a  marked  char- 
acteristic of  adolescence.1  All  manner  of  new  and  un- 
tried things  crowd  into  the  mind.  Here,  again,  the  boy 

1  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Adolescence,  Vol.  II,  p.  84. 


248  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

does  not  understand  himself,  but  this  he  does  not  admit, 
least  of  all  to  his  mother.  This  is  a  time  when  day 
dreams  are  indulged  in,  air  castles  are  built,  splendid 
imaginary  feats  of  bravery  and  heroism  are  enacted,  and 
large  audiences  eloquently  addressed.  For  years  I  won- 
dered why  it  was  that  at  adolescence  something  seemed 
to  come  between  the  boy  and  his  mother.  The  fact  is 
that  the  boy  has  passed  through  a  period  of  mental  trans- 
formation and  that  his  mother  is  in  a  certain  sense  a 
stranger  to  him.  His  experience  is  something  like  that 
described  in  Gilbert  Parker's  story,  in  which  a  man,  after 
having  been  struck  upon  the  head  and  vitally  injured, 
went  to  sleep,  and  when  he  awoke  his  past  was  blotted  out. 

The  Mother's  Opportunity.  The  wise  mother  will 
recognize  this  condition  as  a  normal  phase  of  adolescence 
and  will  realize  that  if  the  happy  relations  of  the  later 
adolescent  period  are  to  be  established,  she  must  be  the 
one  to  make  the  advances.  She  must  find  out  what  her 
boy  is  interested  in,  and  herself  become  interested  in  the 
same  things.  In  a  sense,  she  must  get  acquainted  with 
him  all  over  again  and  possibly  upon  a  somewhat  differ- 
ent basis.  She  must  not  be  discouraged  if  sometimes  her 
advances  seem  to  be  repelled.  The  apparent  self-suffi- 
ciency of  the  boy  at  this  period  often  causes  her  to  dis- 
continue many  of  the  means  of  amusement  and  tokens 
of  affection  which  have  been  customary  until  now.  Often 
the  lad,  who  is  hungry  for  love  and  sympathy,  is  held  at 
arm's  length.  This  is  the  time  when  most  parents  are 
found  wanting.1 

How  to  Keep  in  Touch.     The  bonds  which  will  hold 

1  Wm.  Forbush,  The  Boy  Problem,  p.  32, 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  249 

the  boy  to  his  mother  now  may  have  to  be  different  from 
those  which  held  him  as  a  child.  If  the  mother  has 
made  the  mistake  of  allowing  her  intellectual  life  to  re- 
main at  a  standstill  during  the  boy's  childhood,  if  she 
has  allowed  herself  to  become  entirely  absorbed  in  sewing 
on  his  buttons,  pressing  his  trousers  and  cooking  his 
meals,  important  and  fundamental  as  these  things  are, 
she  must  resign  herself  to  parting  company  with  him 
at  the  adolescent  period.  If  you  want  to  know  your  boy's 
real  self,  you  must  know  and  like  what  he  likes.  You 
must  bring  to  him  qualities  which  he  will  find  attractive. 
Otherwise  you  may  find  yourself  in  the  same  relation  to 
him  as  was  the  teacher  to  the  small  daughter  of  a  friend 
of  mine.  It  was  the  day  for  school  promotions  and  the 
little  girl  was  sent  to  school  as  usual.  In  about  half  an 
hour,  the  mother  was  surprised  to  see  the  child  returning 
home,  books  in  hand.  "Why,  Dolly,  dear/'  she  exclaimed, 
"what  is  the  matter?  Are  you  sick?"  "No,"  replied 
Dolly,  "only  they  put  me  into  another  room,  and  I  don't 
know  the  teacher,  so  of  course  I  couldn't  stay."  Your 
introduction  to  your  son  may  not  be  so  simple  a  matter 
as  was  that  of  Dolly  to  her  teacher.  But  knowledge  and 
patience,  tact  and  mother  love  will  not  fail  of  their  reward. 

If  you  would  preserve  your  intellectual  life  during  the 
years  that  your  boy  is  growing  up,  teach  him  from  the 
start  to  sew  on  his  own  buttons,  press  his  own  trousers, 
and  help  you  with  the  heavy  parts  of  the  housework. 
So  you  will  have  time  and  strength  to  put  yourself  in 
touch  with  his  peculiar  interests. 

Rebellion  Against  'Authority.  Another  mental  char- 
acteristic of  the  adolescent  is  rebellion  against  established 

4 


250  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

authority  and  conventional  standards.  Religious  tenets 
are  likely  to  be  questioned.  Watch  carefully  to  see  what 
direction  this  tendency  is  taking,  but  never  blame  the 
boy  for  his  questioning.  It  is  as  natural  as  breathing.1 
Frank  and  reasonable  discussions  with  regard  to  God, 
the  universe,  and  the  relation  of  the  soul  to  them  will  do 
much  good  and  will  make  a  great  difference  in  the  future 
life  of  the  boy.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  mind  of 
the  boy,  in  spite  of  his  seeming  indifference,  is  very  sen- 
sitive to  ethical  influences.  This  will  be  spoken  of  more 
fully  a  little  later  in  the  chapter. 

Nature  of  Family  Discipline.  Allow  the  family  disci- 
pline, which  up  to  this  time  has  been  firm  and  unyielding, 
to  be  very  elastic.  Remember  that  it  is  a  transition  period 
and  the  boy's  relation  to  everything  is  changing.  By  this 
I  do  not  mean  that  your  ideals  should  be  lowered,  but 
that  an  effort  should  be  made  to  let  the  boy  see  things 
for  himself,  and  do  things  because  they  appeal  to  him 
as  being  right  rather  than  because  he  has  been  told  to 
do  them. 

Polarity  of  the  Sexes.  One  more  characteristic  of 
the  adolescent  period  has  been  called  the  "polarity  of  the 
sexes."  The  boy  becomes  sensible  of  the  existence  of 
the  other  sex.  The  mutual  attraction  of  the  sexes  at  this 
time  is  a  perfectly  natural  process,  and  involves,  among 
other  things,  the  embodiment  of  certain  ideals.  For  ex- 
ample, if  your  boy  seems  to  be  interested  in  a  certain 
girl,  it  is  because  she  corresponds  to  his  ideals,  either  in 
form  and  feature,  dress,  hair,  voice,  behavior,  or  men- 
tality. There  is  a  marked  difference  in  individuals,  both 

1  Tanner,  The  Child,  p.  59.    Forbush,  The  Boy  Problem,  p.  19. 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  251 

as  to  the  time  and  the  degree  of  this  manifestation  of 
polarity,  but  whenever  or  however  it  manifests  itself  it 
should  always  receive  consideration  on  the  part  of  the 
parents.  All  normal  manifestations  should  be  respected. 
One  important  fact  in  this  connection  is  that  the  presence 
of  the  other  sex  serves  to  emphasize  all  adolescent  char- 
acteristics. The  boy  will  either  be  a  better  boy  or  a  worse 
boy  because  of  this  attraction.  If  pure-minded,  the  com- 
panionship of  adolescent  boys  and  girls,  under  proper 
supervision,  is  distinctly  refining  and  inspiring  to  both 
sexes.  But  if  there  is,  on  either  side,  the  taint  of  im- 
purity, even  in  thought,  it  is  far  better  to  prevent  as  far 
as  possible  the  opportunities  for  meeting. 

Training  of  Sex  Emotions.  The  sex  emotions  should 
be  understood,  educated,  disciplined,  and  controlled. 
They  are  not  to  be  annihilated  but  converted  into  higher 
forms  of  activity,  as  science  has  turned  the  destructive- 
ness  of  the  thunderbolt  into  steam  and  motive  power  and 
so  made  it  a  blessing  to  our  age.  When  we  talk  about 
these  things  to  our  boy  we  may  teach  him  to  regard  the 
new  emotion  as  a  gift.  As  such  it  should  be  sacredly 
guarded. 

The  emotional  and  religious  characteristics  of  adoles- 
cence belong  almost  equally  to  both  sexes  and  therefore 
a  consideration  of  them  will  be  reserved  for  the  next 
chapter. 

8.    LATER  SPIRITUAL  CHANGES 

The  later  adolescent  period  has  been  called  the  period 
of  reflection.  The  physical  growth  is  accomplished. 
There  is  a  settling  down  and  adjusting  of  the  new  per- 
sonality to  the  environment.  The  life  has  been  broad- 


252  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

ened  and  deepened  and  wonderfully  enriched  by  the 
experiences  of  adolescence.  Whatever  of  nobility  and 
manliness  and  largeness  of  soul  have  been  gained  by  your 
son,  either  through  nature  or  training,  now  makes  itself 
felt.  I  have  said  that  the  period  of  adolescence  is  a  trying 
one  for  the  mother.  Let  me  also  say  that  her  rewards 
come  to  her  in  the  post-adolescent  period.  No  mother  has 
known  life's  supremest  happiness,  who  has  not  lived 
through  these  years  with  a  loyal  son  or  daughter.  The 
surprises  now  are  not  the  disappointing  ones  of  the  earlier 
period,  but  are  a  constant  succession  of  joy-giving  revela- 
tions. The  child  has  found  himself  in  the  true  sense  and 
is  ready  for  the  conflict  and  the  connuests  which  are 
before  him. 

Adolescence  Complete.  Professor  Tyler  has  said  of 
the  boy  at  this  period:  "The  attainment  of  full 
growth  and  large  muscular  power,  the  large  heart 
and  lungs,  the  well  oxygenated  blood  driven  at  high 
pressure,  the  activity  and  young  vitality  of  all  the 
tissues  and  organs,  give  a  buoyancy  and  courage,  a 
sense  of  power  and  a  longing  for  entire  freedom.  A 
new  world  has  opened  before  the  boy  as  fresh  and 
fair  as  the  morning  of  creation.  The  joy  of  mere  liv- 
ing dawns  upon  him.  He  looks  out  upon  a  fair  new  life 
boundless  in  opportunity  and  endless  in  scope  and  time. 
Surely  no  parent  who  realizes  the  splendid  significance  of 
these  adolescent  years  can  fail  to  he  filled  with  a  high 
resolve  to  do  his  or  her  share  towards  making  them  count 
to  the  fullest  possible  extent,  for  a  full  grown,  well- 
rounded  out  life  for  the  boy  or  girl.  Let  us  do  our  part 
to  make  the  world  really  prove  as  fair  as  it  seems  to  him 


THE  ADOLESCENT  BOY  253 

now.  Let  us  do  our  part  towards  helping  him  to  hold  to 
his  buoyancy,  his  courage  and  his  sense  of  power.  If 
we,  joining  with  the  multitudes  of  other  parents  could 
carry  out  such  high  resolves,  the  bright  side  of  adolescence 
would  spread  its  radiance  into  many  places  where  now 
only  the  tragic  side  of  it  holds  sway. 

An  Appeal.  In  closing  this  chapter — this  chapter 
towards  which  (together  with  the  following  one)  all 
the  other  chapters  have  been  converging,  I  want  to  ask 
some  very  earnest  questions  of  every  mother  who  has 
read  it.  Do  you  really  believe  the  facts  which  are  set 
down  here?  Are  you  convinced  that  the  ignorance,  indif- 
ference and,  possibly  sometimes,  the  indolence  of  mothers 
and  fathers  are  responsible  for  a  very  large  part  of  the 
terrible  evils  which  come  to  the  world  from  the  misuse  and 
abuse  of  the  sexual  powers?  Do  you  now  know  that  all 
the  splendid  possibilities  for  good  which  adolescence 
brings  to  every  boy,  may,  through  lack  of  proper  care  and 
instruction,  become  so  many  open  avenues  to  a  misspent, 
wretched,  and  even  degrading  career?  If  you  do  accept 
these  statements  as  truths,  or  even  as  approximate  truths, 
I  ask  you  if  there  is,  or  can  be  anything  too  hard  for  you 
to  do  in  order  that  the  coming  generation,  the  generation 
of  which  my  boy  and  your  boy  are  a  part,  may  be  saved 
from  sexual  degradation  and  to  physical  purity  and  sound 
moral  living?  Can  there  be  anything  more  worth  your 
while  than  learning  how  best  to  bring  these  wonderful 
facts  of  nature  which  you  know  to  be  absolutely  true  to 
the  knowledge  of  your  children  in  a  simple  pure  way  and 
with  an  emphasis  that  shall  be  effective  and,  moreover, 
be  productive  of  true  personal  purity  in  the  lives  of  your 


254  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

sons?  Will  you  not  answer  these  questions  for  yourself 
and  bring  them  to  other  mothers?  And  the  world  then 
will  say,  when  your  task  you  have  done,  "She  has  reaped 
what  she  sowed. — Lo,  this  is  her  son." 

QUESTIONS  FOR  USE  IN  CLUB  STUDY 

1.  What  is  the  aim  of  the  present  discussion? 

2.  What  is  adolescence? 

3.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  mother's  preparation  for  it? 

4.  What  is  the  parents'  duty  to  the  adolescent  boy? 

5.  How  would  you  answer  his  questions  as  to  the  origin  of  life? 

6.  What  are  the  dangers  of  evasion  and  reticence  on  this  subject? 

7.  What  are  the  divisions  of  the  adolescent  period? 

8.  What  are  the  most  prominent  physical  changes? 

9.  Describe  the  development  of  the  sex  mechanism. 

10.  How  should  the  external  parts  be  cared  for? 

11.  Explain  the  craving  for  tobacco  and  liquor  at  this  time. 

12.  What  is  the  boy's  greatest  danger? 

13.  What  are  the  physical  effects  of  self-pollution? 

14.  What  are  its  mental  effects? 

15.  What  are  some  ways  of  overcoming  these  habits? 

16.  Describe  mental  confusions. 

17.  What  is  meant  by  introspection? 

18.  How  will  the  mother  keep  in  touch  with  her  boy  at  this  time? 

19.  What  should  be  the  nature  of  the  family  discipline? 

20.  What  is  "polarity  of  the  sexes"? 

21.  Describe  the  later  spiritual  changes  of  the  adolescent  period. 

22.  How  will  you  answer  the  closing  appeal  of  the  author  upon 
the  facts  given  in  this  chapter? 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  ADOLESCENT   GIRL 
i.    THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SEX 

In  the  ordinary  treatment  of  adolescence,  the  interest  is 
inclined  to  center  about  the  boy  more  than  about  the  girl. 
Much  that  is  said  upon  this  subject  seems  to  apply  more 
directly  to  boys  than  to  girls,  and  it  is  often  evident  that 
when  neither  sex  is  mentioned,  the  speaker  or  writer  has 
the  boy  in  mind.  Why  is  this  so?  Perhaps  we  are 
inclined  to  think  that  the  girl  is  being  slighted  and  is  not 
receiving  her  just  share  of  attention.  But  if  we  look  into 
the  matter  closely,  we  shall  see  that  there  are  psychological 
and  biological  reasons  for  the  general  attitude  on  this 
question.  Let  us  go  back  for  a  moment  to  the  beginning 
of  all  animal  life. 

How  Sex  Developed.  The  lowest  form  of  life  has 
no  sex  at  all,  but  reproduces  itself,  or  rather, 
multiplies  itself,  by  what  seems  to  us,  who  are  so 
highly  organized,  a  very  singular  process.  This  process 
is  nothing  less  than  the  dividing  of  each  individual 
organism  into  smaller  organisms  which  in  their  turn  grow 
larger  and  are  divided  again.  Out  of  this  simple  being 
there  was  evolved  in  process  of  time  what  is  known  as 
a  one-sexed  organism,  or,  rather,  both  sexes  were  rep- 
resented in  one  organism.  Then,  little  by  little,  through  a 
process  the  details  of  which  I  will  not  take  time  to 

255 


256  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

describe,  it  came  about  that  there  was  a  separation  of  the 
sexes  into  two  differing  organisms.  The  point  which  I  want 
to  emphasize,  and  which  has  been  the  reason  for  my  speak- 
ing of  this  biological  development  here,  is  that  the  original 
one-sexed  organism  was  the  female.  In  the  complex  proc- 
ess of  evolution  during  which  the  male  has  been  devel- 
oped as  a  second  sex  and  both  sexes  have  become  very 
highly  organized,  there  have  always  been  two  prominent 
forces.  First,  the  force  which  tends  to  preserve  the  char- 
acteristics already  developed,  or,  in  other  words,  to  pre- 
vent the  evolution  from  becoming  retarded.  This  force 
has  been  called  by  scientists  the  conservative  force.  Sec- 
ond, the  force  which  tends  to  introduce  changes  or  new 
elements.  The  particular  province  of  this  force  is  to 
bring  about  variety  and  thus  secure  advance  in  the  prog- 
ress of  evolution.  This  has  been  called  the  radical  force. 
The  female  sex  represents  the  conservative  force,  the  male 
sex  represents  the  radical  and  progressive  force. 

Relative  Importance  of  Male  and  Female  Organisms. 
Neither  force  can  be  called  more  important  than  the 
other.  Neither  can  be  called  stronger  than  the  other. 
Each  one  in  its  own  line  is  absolutely  essential  to  our  best 
development.  Each  of  these  two  different  biological 
organisms  has  its  own  way  of  manifesting  itself,  quite  in 
accordance  with  its  sex  nature.  As  has  already  been  said, 
the  period  of  adolescence  in  human  beings  is  the  period 
when  the  sex  forces  manifest  themselves.  There  is  in 
both  sexes  the  rapid  growth,  the  great  mental  upheaval, 
and  the  distinctive  spiritual  experiences,  but  the  reaction 
of  these  experiences  has  a  different  tendency  in  the  differ- 
ent sexes. 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  257 

Difference  in  Adolescent  Manifestations.  The  girl, 
on  account  of  her  conservative  organization,  accepts 
these  changes  more  conservatively,  more  quietly,  and 
keeps  her  feelings  within  herself.  The  tendency  of 
the  boy,  on  the  other  hand,  especially  of  the  boy  with  no 
previous  training  or  preparation  for  this  period,  is  to  show 
his  feelings  in  extreme  forms  of  behavior.  The  dangers 
of  the  adolescent  period  in  relation  both  to  the  individual 
and  to  the  race,  are  ultimately  as  serious  for  girls  as  they 
are  for  boys.  But  because  the  dangers  to  boys  are  more 
immediate,  more  apparent,  and  more  defiant,  and  because 
people  always  respond  more  quickly  to  immediate  dangers 
than  they  do  to  remote  ones,  the  adolescence  of  the  boy 
attracts  the  larger  attention.  Then  there  is  another  rea- 
son why  girls  are  less  likely  than  boys  to  break  through 
restraint  and  call  attention  to  themselves.  Public  senti- 
ment demands  a  circumspection  of  conduct  and  character 
in  a  girl  which  it  does  not  demand  in  a  boy.  The  reasons 
for  this  I  cannot  stop  to  examine,  but  will  only  say  in  pass- 
ing that  many  a  mother  of  boys  has  fervently  wished  that 
public  sentiment  would  make  the  same  demands  upon  the 
male  sex.  Such  a  condition  would  make  it  vastly  easier 
for  her  to  keep  her  boy  pure  in  thought  and  action.  In 
the  case  of  the  girl,  however,  much  as  she  may  reBel 
inwardly,  however  much  she  may  be  tempted  to  commit 
social  or  even  moral  improprieties,  the  parent  may  always 
count  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  restraining  in- 
fluence of  public  sentiment.  Society  as  a  whole  accepts 
this  state  of  affairs  and  hence  the  effort  in  behalf  of  girls 
is  less  marked.  But,  althought  this  sentiment  is  strong, 
we  cannot  afford  to  rely  upon  it  implicitly.  No  social  law 


258  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

can  be  trusted  to  take  the  place  of  moral  principle.  Some- 
times there  are  girls  who  are  not  so  sensitive  to  public 
opinion,  or  are  ignorant  of  the  strength  of  it.  When  such 
girls  are  left  without  personal  influence  and  care,  they  are 
in  great  danger  of  going  wrong. 

2.    THE  MOTHER'S  DUTY  TO  THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL 

The  adolescent  period  in  the  life  of  the  girl  follows  in 
the  main  the  three  overlapping  periods  which  are  expected 
to  show  themselves  in  the  life  of  the  boy.  They  are: 
First,  early  adolescence  or  puberty,  when  the  changes 
seem  to  be  mainly  physical;  second,  middle  adolescence, 
when  mental  development  accompanies  the  physical 
changes,  and  the  physical  manifestations  are  not  so  dis- 
turbing as  in  the  first  period ;  third,  later  adolescence,  when 
the  physical  changes  have  been  completed  and  the  mental 
and  spiritual  forces  are  adjusting  themselves  to  life  with 
an  enthusiasm  which  is  begotten  of  a  sense  of  new  powers 
and  possibilities. 

General  Physical  Signs.  It  is  difficult  to  say  at  just 
what  age  adolescence  is  to  be  expected  in  the  girl.  The 
tendency  to  an  early  or  late  adolescence  often  seems  to 
be  hereditary.  If  the  mother  was  adolescent  at  an  early 
age,  she  may  look  for  her  daughter  to  become  so;  if  she 
was  late  in  coming  to  maturity,  the  daughter  is  likely 
to  be  the  same.  It  is  possible  that  the  first  adolescent 
signs  may  manifest  themselves  soon  after  the  tenth  year, 
although  probably  several  years  will  elapse  before  maturity 
is  accomplished.  As  has  already  been  said,  adolescence 
usually  comes  earlier  to  the  girl  than  to  the  boy,  and  as 
in  case  of  the  boy,  the  first  visible  sign  of  its  approach 
is  usually  rapid  physical  growth.  The  growth  in  height 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  259 

is  as  marked  as  the  increase  in  weight.  There  is  a  round- 
ing out  of  the  bust,  and  a  broadening  across  the  hips  at 
this  time.  There  is  also  a  change  in  the  features.  This 
definite  growth  of  the  body  is  almost  sure  to  be  preceded 
and  accompanied  by  numerous  aches  and  pains.  There 
will  be  headache,  backache,  aching  in  the  bones  and  across 
the  breast.  These  are,  for  the  most  part,  what  we  call 
normal  signs.  Abnormal  and  extreme  manifestations, 
together  with  their  causes,  and  what  it  may  be  best  for  the 
mother  to  do  in  those  cases  will  be  spoken  of  later. 

Direct  Information  to  Daughter.  The  mother's  duty 
at  this  point  involves  the  imparting  to  her  daughter  of  a 
clear  explanation  of  the  physical  processes  and  possibilities 
of  womanhood.  She  must  learn  through  study  how  the 
body  is  constructed  and  what  the  changes  are  which  will 
naturally  occur  at  this  time.  If,  as  was  suggested  in  the 
case  of  the  boy,  the  mother  has  the  full  confidence  of  the 
daughter,  if  the  daughter  has  been  encouraged  to  ask 
questions,  and  has  always  had  them  truthfully  answered, 
the  situation  will  be  simplified.  When  the  little  girl  and 
the  little  boy  as  well,  asked  where  the  baby  came  from, 
perhaps  the  mother  told  that  it  grew  from  a  tiny  speck, 
in  a  nest  in  the  mother's  body,  and  when  it  was  large 
enough  and  strong  enough  it  was  born  into  the  world.  It 
must  be  explained  that  this  act  of  the  child  of  being  born 
gave  the  mother  a  great  deal  of  pain  and  suffering  and 
made  her  ill  for  some  time.  The  child  accepts  these  things 
simply.  The  frank  explanation  of  facts  draws  her  to  her 
mother  in  a  close  bond  of  sympathy.  Hereafter  she  trusts 
the  mother  implicitly  in  all  the  other  mysteries  of  life. 
So  when  the  fulness  of  time  has  come,  and  the  mother 


260  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

discovers  the  stirring  of  adolescence  in  the  daughter,  the 
time  has  arrived  for  her  to  speak  fully  and  frankly  of 
the  changes  which  are  taking  place.  This  must  be  done 
so  carefully,  so  sympathetically,  and  yet  so  reasonably 
that  the  daughter  will  understand  the  meaning  and  impor- 
tance of  it.  If  the  daughter  is  clearly  shown  how  critical 
is  the  period  through  which  she  is  passing  she  will  be 
forearmed  against  the  dangers  of  the  period.  She  will 
see  how  imperative  it  is  that  she  should  take  care  of  her 
own  health,  and  that  she  should  guard  herself  from  im- 
purity even  in  thought.  Not  only  should  the  nature  of  the 
adolescent  function  be  explained  but  the  meaning  of  it  as 
well.  Every  girl  should  understand  that  not  only  is  imper- 
fect functioning  a  danger  to  her  own  personal  health,  but 
that  it  is  a  danger  to  posterity  as  well. 

Women  Have  a  Grave  Responsibility.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  if  our  race  deteriorates,  it  will  be  through  the 
deterioration  of  the  woman.  No  one  individual  can  sepa- 
rate herself  from  the  life  and  welfare  of  the  race.  We 
should  be  just  as  insistent  that  our  daughters  have  an 
exact  knowledge  of  their  own  physical  organization  and 
functions  as  we  are  that  they  learn  their  school  lessons 
and  understand  their  social  duties.  There  is  no  knowledge 
which  they  will  be  called  upon  to  use  more  often  than 
this  physical  knowledge  of  themselves.  And  especially, 
too  tnuch  effort  cannot  be  placed  upon  the  dependence  of 
the  girl's  future  health  and  happiness  upon  the  successful 
culmination  of  adolescence.  Mistakes  made  here  are  fatal 
and  final.  There  is  no  appeal  from  nature's  verdict,  no 
forgiveness  for  those  who  -even  ignorantly  have  sinned 
against  her  laws. 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  26 1 

Mother  the  Proper  Teacher.  Do  not  allow  your  daugh- 
ter to  learn  these  things  from  any  other  person  or  to  have 
only  such  knowledge  as  may  come  to  her  by  intuition. 
One  of  the  tragedies  of  adolescence  is  that  girls  should 
learn  the  most  sacred  truths  of  life  in  a  distorted  and  un- 
truthful way.  The  emphasis  is  not  rightly  placed,  and  the 
importance  of  the  care  of  the  body  is  not  fully  realized. 
Sometimes  it  is  difficult  for  mothers  to  talk  with  their 
daughters  on  this  subject,  but  there  is  generally  a  way. 
It  may  be  well  to  place  in  the  hands  of  the  girl  a  good 
book  treating  of  the  physiology  of  sex,  and  when  she  has 
read  it  discuss  with  her  any  question  upon  which  she  may 
wish  further  light.  Almost  a  Woman,  by  Mary  Wood 
Allen,  will  be  helpful  here.  A  simple  physiological  state- 
ment of  some  of  the  functional  processes  of  the  body  will 
be  helpful  to  both  the  mother  and  the  daughter  in  this  con- 
nection. 

Changes  in  Organs  at  Adolescence.  When  a  girl  is 
small  she  has  within  her  body  certain  organisms  which  are 
necessary  to  keep  her  alive.  The  chief  of  these  are  the 
heart,  the  stomach,  the  lungs,  the  intestines  or  bowels, 
the  liver,  and  the  bladder.  The  part  of  the  body  known 
as  the  hips  is  really  the  pelvis,  and  is  a  bony  case  with 
nearly  an  open  front,  the  function  of  which  is  to  support 
and  protect  certain  of  these  vital  organs  of  the  body. 
Down  in  the  pelvis,  between  the  bladder  and  the  lower  part 
of  the  bowels,  is  a  small  object  about  the  size  and  shape 
of  a  pear.  This  little  object  is  there  at  birth  just  as 
the  other  objects  are.  On  one  side  of  this  little  pear- 
shaped  organ  are  tiny  flat  membranes,  something  like  the 
wings  of  a  bat,  only  much  smaller.  On  the  surface  of 


262  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

each  of  these  membranes  is  a  round  spot  which  is  harder 
than  the  rest  and  is  connected  with  the  pear-shaped  object 
in  the  center  by  small  tubes.  This  part  of  the  child's 
anatomy  seems  to  have  no  connection  with  any  of  the 
processes  which  are  going  on  in  the  rest  of  the  body,  but 
when  the  girl  becomes  older  and  larger  and  reaches  her 
eleventh,  twelfth,  or  thirteenth  year,  the  two  small  spots 
in  the  membranes;  grow  a  little  larger  and  all  of  these 
parts  become  important  enough  to  be  named.  The  central 
shaped  organ  is  the  uterus,  and  the  two  little  bodies  in 
the  membranes  at  the  sides  are  the  ovaries.  Soon  after 
the  growth  of  these  parts  has  begun,  a  minute  substance 
like  a  speck  of  the  white  of  a  raw  egg,  and  called  the  ovum 
forms  in  the  ovaries.  When,  as  weeks  go  by,  the  time 
comes  for  this  little  ovum  to  ripen,  it  passes  out  of  the 
ovary  through  its  own  little  tube  and  into  the  uterus. 
A  few  days  later,  it  passes  on  out  of  the  body.  But  while 
all  this  was  going  on,  something  else  was  happening. 
The  lining  of  the  uterus  is  filled  with  very  small  blood 
vessels.  These  become  full  of  blood  during  the  process 
which  has  just  been  spoken  of.  At  the  proper  time,  as 
there  seems  to  be  a  proper  time  for  everything,  these  deli- 
cate blood  vessels  break  and  let  out  their  contents,  and  it  is 
within  a  few  days  after  this  happens  that  the  ovum  fol- 
lows. Four  weeks  from  the  time  the  first  tiny  ovum  made 
its  escape  from  its  ovary,  an  ovum  leaves  the  other  ovary. 
The  process  is  repeated  thereafter  regularly  at  intervals  of 
four  weeks,  with  the  same  filling  and  breaking  of  the 
blood  vessels  a  few  days  before  each  ovum  leaves  the 
body. 

Relative  Importance  of  These  Organs  in  the  Body. 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  263 

While  these  parts  do  not  help  to  support  the  life  of  the 
girl  in  any  way,  yet,  if  anything  happens  to  them, — and 
they  are  very  sensitive  and  delicate, — serious  effects  are 
likely  to  follow.  Sometimes  the  process  which  has  been 
described  above  and  which  is  called  menstruation,  may 
happen  once  or  twice  and  then  be  suspended  for  a  number 
of  months.  In  fact  such  a  condition  occurs  very  often, 
and  under  ordinary  circumstances  need  occasion  no  anx- 
iety. If,  however,  the  process  is  not  established  properly 
and  regularly  in  the  course  of  time,  it  becomes  a  very 
serious  matter.  Not  only  does  the  body  then  suffer,  but 
the  mind  may  fail  to  develop  as  it  should.  It  would  seem 
from  a  careful  study  of  the  situation  that  these  organs  are 
not  placed  in  the  body  to  help  the  body,  as  its  other  parts 
are,  but  in  order  that  the  other  parts  of  the  body  may 
help  them  to  become  strong  and  efficient.  For  the  newly 
adolescent  girl,  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  these  portions 
of  the  body  will  be  strong  enough  to  be  called  upon  to 
bear  their  share  of  life's  burdens,  and  perhaps  they  may 
never  be  so  called  upon.  Yet  it  is  her  imperative  duty  to 
guard  them  sacredly.  Their  importance  is  as  great  in 
relation  to  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  as  the  importance 
of  the  race  is  great  in  relation  to  the  individual. 

3.    THE  HEALTH  OF  THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL 

We  may  now  assume  that  the  adolescent  period  has  been 
fairly  entered  upon  and  will  consider  certain  characteris- 
tics which  will  appear  as  the  daughter  advances  in  it.  The 
bodily  growth  has  already  been  spoken  of.  This  will  con- 
tinue through  middle  adolescence.  The  average  twelve 
year  old  girl  will  not  be  far  from  fifty-six  inches  tall,  and 


264  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

will  weigh  about  eighty  pounds.  Size  and  weight  are  of 
course  influenced  largely  by  heredity.  When  the  age  of 
fifteen  has  been  reached,  the  girl  will  often  be  practically 
full-grown,  whatever  her  normal  weight  and  height  are 
to  be.  Tables  of  height  and  weight  which  apply  to  both 
girls  and  boys  will  be  found  in  chapter  three.  There  is 
one  very  important  phase  of  our  subject  which  presses 
upon  us  here.  I  refer  to  the  health  of  the  adolescent 
girl. 

Responsibility  of  Women.  Professor  Tyler  calls  our 
attention  to  the  fact  that  American  women  ought  to  be 
healthy  since  the  toughest,  sturdiest  and  strongest  Euro- 
pean populations  have  been  sifted  to  plant  our  country.1 
Yet  there  is  plainly  a  possibility  that  we  have  by  artificial 
methods  of  life  through  several  generations  squandered 
our  heritage.  We  shall  have  to  admit  that  the  health  of 
girls  at  this  period  is  more  likely  to  be  affected  than  that 
of  boys.  This  may  be  partly  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  the  nervous  system  of  the  girl  is  more  highly  orga- 
nized than  that  of  the  boy.  The  organs  of  reproduction 
are  much  more  complex,  and  there  is  a  close  connection 
between  the  nervous  system  and  the  organs  of  reproduc- 
tion. Again,  the  present  system  of  social  life  bears  heavily 
upon  women  and  for  this  reason,  our  girls  are  inheriting 
a  tendency  to  nervous  disorders.  This  tendency  must  be 
overcome  if  our  race  is  to  maintain  its  commanding  posi- 
tion and  influence. 

Things  Which  Affect  Health.  When  a  girl  comes  to 
adolescence  in  a  good  state  of  physical  health  and  is  prop- 
erly taken  care  of,  there  is  no  reason  to  expect  that  her 

1  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education,  p.  174. 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  265 

health  will  be  seriously  affected  by  the  change.  As  has 
been  said  on  another  page,  some  pains  are  normal,  and 
when  the  child  seems  well-nourished,  has  a  good  color  and 
a  good  pose,  she  need  cause  the  mother  no  uneasiness  as 
regards  health.  But  care  should  be  taken  not  to  undergo 
unusual  fatigue  or  excitement  and  especially  not  to  sit 
with  cold  and  damp  feet,  or  in  damp  clothing.  The  sys- 
tem is  more  sensitive  to  cold  at  this  time,  and  inflammation 
of  the  delicate  organs  may  be  brought  about,  which  it  will 
be  difficult  to  cure  and  which  will  cause  great  pain  and 
weakness  in  future  years. 

Some  phases  of  ill  health  during  adolescence  are  an 
abnormal  paleness  and  listlessness,  sleeplessness,  and  con- 
stipation. If  the  child  has  had  some  previous  defect,  either 
developmental  or  nervous,  more  serious  disturbances  to 
health  are  likely  to  occur.  Anaemia  and  hysteria  are  the 
most  common.1  Anaemia  is  a  condition  of  thin  and  im- 
poverished blood.  The  blood  loses  some  of  its  red  cor- 
puscles. These  red  corpuscles  are  very  important,  since 
they  carry  oxygen  from  the  lungs  to  the  brain  and  to  all 
other  parts  of  the  body  where  blood  circulates.  An  anae- 
mic person  has  little  color  in  the  face  and  lips,  and  becomes 
breathless  in  going  up  stairs.  Among  the  causes  of  anaemia 
are  living  in  hot,  close  rooms  and  wearing  tight  clothing.2 
Listlessness,  and  a  general  lack  of  strength  are  its  symp- 
toms. 

Hysteria  is  a  nervous  trouble.  Its  symptoms  are  laugh- 
ing and  crying  alternately  with  no  real  occasion  for  doing 
either.  There  is  often  a  choking  sensation  in  the  throat. 

1  Francis  Warner,  A  Study  of  Children,  p.  195. 

2  Warner,  Study,  of  Children,  p.  196, 


266  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

The  eyes  are  not  under  control,  and  there  are  other  signs 
of  nervousness,  as  the  twitching  of  the  muscles,  and  a 
tendency  to  bite  the  nails.  These  symptoms  should  not  be 
neglected.  If  they  do  not  yield  to  careful  home  treat- 
ment, and  especially  if  the  monthly  function  fails  to  be- 
come regularly  established,  as  sometimes  happens  under 
these  circumstances,  a  physician  should  be  consulted.  Many 
girls  suffer  from  constipation  during  adolescence.  This 
induces  a  feeling  of  sluggishness  in  the  whole  body.  The 
brain  also  feels  the  effect  of  the  stagnant  physical  proc- 
esses and  becomes  dull  and  heavy. 

Constipation  can  often  be  overcome  by  a  proper  diet, 
and  such  a  course  is  far  better  than  the  practice  of  using 
drugs.  The  lighter  meats,  as  poultry  and  lean  pork,  will 
have  a  laxative  tendency  with  some  girls.  Among  veg- 
etables, onions  are  excellent,  and  among  fruits,  apples, 
pears,  bananas,  oranges,  figs  and  prunes,  particularly  the 
last  two  named,  can  be  recommended.  Graham  bread  and 
crackers,  oatmeal  and  any  food  made  from  coarse  unbolted 
flour  or  whole  wheat,  will  usually  be  found  helpful.  If 
these  things  do  not  accomplish  the  purpose,  a  mild  drug 
may  be  used,  but  do  not  allow  the  constipation  to  become 
chronic.  The  matter  of  regulating  the  diet  at  this  period 
is  not  a  simple  one.  The  adolescent  appetite  is  a  "finicky" 
thing  and  not  likely  to  be  amenable  to  the  judgment  of  the 
mother. 

Exercise.  The  question  of  exercise  offers  another  diffi- 
cult problem.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  tendency 
of  American  girls  to  ill-health,  especially  in  the  line  of 
nervous  and  uterine  disorders,  is  due  not  to  over-study  or 
brain  fatigue,  but  to  the  lack  of  sufficient  regular  and  sys- 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  267 

tematic  exercise  in  the  open  air.  It  may  be  that  in  some 
cases  a  too  strenuous  social  life  adds  its  quota  of  influ- 
ence to  the  already  established  condition,  but  the  number 
of  girls  who  suffer  from  social  dissipations  is  much 
smaller  than  those  who  suffer  from  nervous  troubles. 
When  a  girl's  strength  is  depleted  from  lack  of  exercise 
and  the  evils  which  follow  in  its  train,  she  undoubtedly 
does  suffer  from  her  study  and  from  almost  everything 
else  which  she  tries  to  do.  This  condition  often  begins 
while  she  is  in  the  lower  grades  at  school,  and  becomes  a 
habit  which  is  likely  to  last  through  life  unless  measures 
are  taken  to  correct  it.  If  the  girl,  as  she  grows  older,  is 
called  upon  to  assist  in  the  duties  of  the  home  she  may 
overcome  the  condition,  although  even  then  the  problem 
of  fresh  air  is  still  to  be  solved.  But  for  the  daughters 
of  those  homes  where  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  manual 
work  is  done  by  servants,  insufficient  exercise  is  a  very 
real  danger. 

Clothing  Often  Injurious.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  in  the 
near  future,  the  clothing  of  our  girls  will  be  universally 
adapted  to  healthful  exercise.  In  a  parents'  meeting  in 
one  of  our  grade  schools  recently  the  subject  of  equiping 
the  playground  with  gymnastic  apparatus  was  discussed. 
It  soon  became  evident  that  the  apparatus  which  the  girls 
could  use  was  very  limited.  Everything  which  involved 
really  vigorous  exercise  had  to  be  eliminated  on  account 
of  the  ill-adaptation  of  the  clothing  of  the  girls.  The 
pupils  were  from  the  first  to  the  eighth  grade,  ranging 
in  age  from  five  to  fourteen  years. 

Perhaps  we  are  discussing  a  very  hopeless  subject,  since 
it  is  quite  generally  admitted  that  the  clothing  of  women 


268  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

as  a  whole,  from  the  standpoint  of  health  at  least,  is  a 
failure.  Yet  we  must  struggle  with  this  problem,  for  the 
clothing  plays  a  large  part  in  the  health  of  the  adolescent 
girl.  To  preserve  the  physical  strength  the  clothing  should 
not  interfere  with  the  three  essential  bodily  functions, 
namely,  circulation,  respiration,  and  digestion.  There  are 
two  arch  enemies,  for  the  adolescent  girl,  in  the  way 
of  dress.  If  they  could  be  vanquished,  the  chances  for 
sturdy  womanhood  in  the  next  generation  would  be 
greatly  increased.  They  are  corsets  and  high  heels.  The 
desire  to  wear  corsets  seizes  the  girl  just  at  the  time  when 
she  least  ought  to  wear  them,  that  is  when  the  body  is  ten- 
der and  soft,  and  when  the  most  important  vital  organs 
she  possesses  are  struggling  for  enlargement  and  strength. 
Nature's  laws  are  blindly  ignored  and  the  dictates  of  fash- 
ion as  to  which  part  of  the  body  should  be  squeezed  in 
and  which  part  padded  out  are  cheerfully  accepted.  If 
the  pattern  sheet  says  that  the  waist  must  be  long,  then, 
the  fatter  the  girl  the  harder  she  struggles  to  make  her 
waist  long.  One  girl  must  do  it  because  the  others  do, 
and  she  cannot  bear  the  humiliation  of  being  "different/' 
What  a  change  in  all  this  unreasonable,  harmful  proced- 
ure could  be  brought  about  by  a  coterie  of  sensible  moth- 
ers !  High  heels  are  a  menace  to  the  body,  literally  from 
top  to  toe.  The  muscles  of  the  neck,  shoulders,  back,  hips 
and  ankles  are  strained,  by  supporting  the  weight  of  the 
body  in  a  position  not  intended  for  it;  to  say  nothing 
of  the  vital  organs  in  the  pelvic  cavity  which  are  tipped 
out  of  their  natural  position,  when  high  heels  are  worn. 
There  are  other  dangers  to  be  sure,  as  heavy  skirts,  high 
collars,  thin  waists  with  insufficient  underclothing  in  cold 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  269 

weather,  but  the  two  first  named  are  the  most  persistent 
and  general.  The  only  thing  to  do  with  them  is  to  have 
nothing  to  do  with  them.  If  the  growing  girl  needs  some 
support  for  her  figure  there  are  several  styles  of  waists 
which  will  meet  the  needs  and  be  free  from  the  injurious 
effects  of  the  corsets.  To  secure  proper  heels  will  require 
a  struggle  with  the  shoe  man,  but  if  you  know  what  you 
want  you  can  generally  get  it. 

Dr.  Rankin,  to  whom  reference  was  made  in  our  dis- 
cussion of  the  health  of  school  children,  lays  special  em- 
phasis upon  the  matter  of  warm  clothing  in  cold  weather. 
He  insists  that  the  child  can  never  reach  maturity  in  per- 
fect health  who  does  not  wear  a  heavier  grade  of  under- 
clothing in  cold  weather  than  in  warm  weather.  The  cus- 
tom which  prevails  among  high  school  and  college  girls 
of  wearing  gauze  underwear,  and  thin  white  waists 
through  the  coldest  months  of  winter,  will,  according  to 
this  authority,  eventuate  in  the  serious  impairment  of 
adult  health,  even  though  no  unfavorable  results  may  be 
noticed  at  the  time.  If  every  mother  could  see  to  it  that 
her  daughter  had  plenty  of  exercise,  plenty  of  nourishing 
food,  and  good  healthful  clothing  between  the  ages  of 
twelve  and  eighteen  years,  many  things  which  are  now 
most  perplexing  in  our  school  and  social  life  would  drop 
into  insignificance. 

4.    MENTAL  CHANGES  DURING  ADOLESCENCE 

During  adolescence  the  mind  as  well  as  the  body  is  un- 
dergoing a  great'  upheaval.  One  writer  says,  "Changes  in 
the  brain  are  so  rapid,  development  of  the  faculties  of  the 
mind  are  so  remarkable,  even  in  a  few  months,  that  the 


270  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

wisest  care  must  constantly  be  accorded,  to  insure  per- 
fect and  complete  development."  Professor  Seerley,  after 
calling  attention  to  the  physical  dangers,  says,  "There  are 
psychological  results  which  are  just  as  serious  if  neglected, 
and  just  as  promising  in  returns,  if  cared  for  at  the  proper 
time." 

Introspection.  I  spoke  in  the  last  chapter  of  introspec- 
tion as  a  characteristic  of  the  adolescent  age.  I  am  in- 
clined to  think  that  the  girl,  because  social  convention  pre- 
vents her  from  expressing  herself  in  an  open  way,  suffers 
more  from  this  mental  condition  than  does  the  boy.  There 
is  an  abnormal  desire  to  conceal  herself  from  her  elders. 
She  seems  to  withdraw  into  herself  and  to  be  living  a 
life  of  her  own,  apart  from  the  family  life  about  her.  She 
will  perform  her  duties  and  answer  questions,  but  often  it 
will  be  in  a  perfunctory  way,  which,  coupled  with  a 
dreamy  expression  of  the  eyes,  suggests  that  her  thoughts 
are  not  upon  her  environment. 

The  Mother's  Part.  This  condition  requires  all  a  lov- 
ing mother's  tact.  The  mother  must  decide  when  she  may 
safely  enter  the  precincts  of  her  daughter's  thought-life, 
and  when  she  would  better  remain  at  a  distance.  The 
ability  to  see  the  invisible  is  more  than  we  can  hope  for. 
There  are  certain  intangible  things  which  even  thought 
and  instinct  cannot  discover.  There  is  a  subtle  play  of  the 
soul  forces  at  this  period  of  life  which  is  beyond  our  ken. 
We  are  at  best  only  partners  with  the  great  Divine  Intel- 
ligence that  knows  and  understands  all;  and  there  come 
times  when  we  recognize  that  we  must  leave  our  child  in 
the  hands  of  the  Unseen  Power. 

Desire  for  Respect.    Another  mental  characteristic  of 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  271 

this  period  is  the  desire  to  be  respected,  and  to  be  treated 
as  an  older  person  would  be  treated.  The  girl's  ideals 
have  suddenly  changed  from  those  of  a  child  to  those  of 
a  woman,  and  she  does  not  realize  that  her  character  and 
conduct  have  not  also  taken  this  sudden  leap.  This  also, 
is  a  situation  which  requires  tact.  If  the  mother  ridicules 
her  daughter,  for  what  may  seem  like  silly  pretensions, 
she  will  not  only  lose  her  confidence  and  sympathy  but 
there  is  danger  that  the  girl  will  seek  the  companionship  of 
her  inferiors,  who  will  accord  her  the  consideration  which 
she  craves  and  which  she  feels  that  she  deserves. 

Emotional  Sensitiveness.  The  emotional  nature  is  pe- 
culiarly sensitive.  Anger  is  quickly  shown.  Lovej  and 
hate  spring  up  suddenly  and  often  unreasonably.  Jeal- 
ousy is  one  of  the  most  marked  characteristics  of  adoles- 
cence. Together  with  these  tendencies,,  there  is  great 
sensitiveness  to  fault-finding  in  any  form.  Where  these 
characteristics  existed  before,  they  are  accentuated,  and 
where  they  did  not  exist  before  they  usually  appear.  They 
will  in  a  proper  environment,  pass  away  during  the  quiet, 
reasonable  years  which  follow  adolescence,  yet  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  while  they  last  they  bring  much  unhappi- 
ness  to  the  one  who  is  subject  to  them, — an  unhappiness 
which  the  mother  would  gladly  alleviate  if  it  were  in  her 
power  to  do  so.  Love  and  hate  have!  been  mentioned  as 
likely  to  be  strong  at  this  time.  It  is  an  interesting  fact 
that  the  first  of  these  emotions  is  not  always  or  generally 
displayed  towards  the  opposite  sex.  The  adolescent  girl 
often  becomes  passionately  attached  to  an  adult  of  her 
own  sex.  It  often^  happens  that  those  about  the  child  and 
even  the  recipient  of  the  adoration  have  little  idea  of  the 


272  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

great  happiness  which  comes  to  the  life  of  the  child  through 
this  ardent  love.  The!  emotion  is  often  shown  also  in  an 
exaggerated  form  towards  some  favored  girl  companion. 

Mental  Suggestion.  Mental  suggestion  has  been  re- 
ferred to  as  an\  expedient  in  the  case  of  young  children. 
This  process  may  be  most  hopefully  employed  also  with 
the  adolescent.  Be  with  your  daughter  as  much  as  you 
can  and  make  an  effort  to  keep  your  own  mind  in  the 
state  in  which  you  wish  her  mind  to  be.  Let  your  con- 
versation be  of  good  will,  unselfishness,  and  self-control.  If 
you  find  that  she  is  jealous  of  someone,  take  pains  to  find 
out  the  circumstances  so  as  to  be  able  to  show  her  that 
no  cause  for  jealousy  exists.  Constantly  assume  that 
there  is  good- will  towards  your  child  on  the/  part  of  her 
classmates,  especially  on  the  part  of  those  in  whom  she 
suspects  a  different  feeling.  It  will  often  require  much 
effort  upon  the  part  of  the  mother  to  gain  these  states  of 
mind,  but  in  the  case  of  the  adolescent,  whether  boy  or 
girl,  the  establishing  of  right  mental  conditions  is  gener- 
ally the  only  means  of  help. 

Polarity.  There  is,  to  be  sure,  also  in  the  adolescent 
girl  what  was  called  in  a  former  chapter  "the  polarity  of 
the  sexes".  Many  girls  are  sensitive  to  its  influence.  The 
recognition  of  the  opposite  sex  may  be  shown  either  by 
an  unusual  seeking  for,  or  an  unnatural  avoidance  of  their 
society.  It  is  also  shown  by  a  greater  thought  fulness  for 
the  clothing  and  the  general  personal  appearance. 

Social  Life.  This  question  of  the  "polarity  of  the 
sexes,"  brings  us  to  a  consideration  of  the  social  life. 
It  is  impossible  here  to  lay  down  definite  rules,  because 
each  girl  is  different  from  every  other  in  her  disposition 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  273 

and  desires,  and  each  mother  has  different  ideals.  I  be- 
lieve, however,  that  it  is  every  mother's  duty  to  see  that 
her  daughter's  social  life  does  not  deteriorate  into  social 
dissipation.  She  should  constantly  use  her  judgment  as 
to  the  relation  of  the  social  life  to  her  daughter's  present 
and  future  well-being.  We  all  know  how  often  "society" 
interferes  with  the  girl's  best  good,  physically,  intel- 
lectually, and  morally.  The  mother,  not  the  child,  is  the 
one  to  decide  if  this  is  happening,  and  the  mother  should 
dictate  the  course  of  action  for  the  daughter  to  pur- 
sue. If  the  girl  thinks  too  much  of  social  life, 
she  should  be  restrained;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  she 
thinks  too  little  of  it,  there  should  be  an  effort 
to  introduce  as  much  as  will  be  good  for  her.  The 
attitude  of  the  mother  toward  her  daughter's  boy  friends 
must  also  depend  largely  upon  the  daughter's  disposition. 
If  the  girl  is  inclined  to  have  many  boy  friends,  or,  more 
especially,  if  she  has  but  one,  and  that  one  very  friendly, 
there  should  be  a  careful  supervision.  An  eminent  phy- 
sician has  declared  that  in  his  judgment  adolescent  boys 
and  girls  should  never  be  left  in  each  other's  company 
without  adult  supervision.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  girl 
seems  to  care  nothing  for  boys,  the  mother  will  be  wise 
to  encourage  such  friendship.  I  realize  that  this  is  hard 
to  do  under  the  present  social  conditions,  but  if  one  way 
fails,  another  may  be  found,  and  I  am  convinced  that  the 
result  of  the  effort  will  be  good. 

5.    SPIRITUAL  DEVELOPMENT  AT  ADOLESCENCE 

Turning  from  the  physical  and  mental  to  the  spiritual 
nature  of  the  adolescent  girl,  we  find  some  quite  dis- 


274  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

tinctive  characteristics.  We  spoke  earlier  of  adolescence 
being  a  "new  birth"  in  a  physical  way.  It  often  seems  to 
be  such  in  a  religious  way.  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall  says  that 
from  the  psychological  standpoint  alone  the  church  is  jus- 
tified in  laying  the  emphasis  which  it  does  upon  regenera- 
tion. It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  more  enter  the  church 
during  adolescence,  than  during  any  other  equal  period  of 
time.  The  boy  or  girl  seems  to  receive  from  nature  what 
has  been  called  a  "new  capital"  in  energized  spiritual  feel- 
ing.1 

The  Religious  Awakening.  What  is  often  called 
"change  of  heart"  may  justly  be  considered  as  a  growth 
in  spirituality,  corresponding  to  the  physical  and  mental 
growth.  There  comes  with  more  definiteness  than  ever 
before  a  sense  of  the  relation  of  right  and  wrong,  purity 
and  impurity,  truth  and  falsehood.  Ideas  of  right  appear 
clothed  with  a  new  force,  and  are  often  exceedingly  high. 
Sometimes  they  are  so  high  as  to  cause  discouragement 
at  the  impossibility  of  attainment.  This  personal  realiza- 
tion of  right  and  wrong  now  takes  the  place  of  mere  rules. 
Conscience  is  hypersensitive.  It  has  sometimes  been  called 
the  voice  of  the  race  speaking  within  the  individual. 

Conflicting  Emotions.  In  speaking  of  the  adolescence 
of  boys,  reference  was  made  to  their  tendency  to  rebellion 
against  authority  and  against  all  accepted  standards  and 
beliefs.  With  many  girls  there  is  this  same  rebellion  and 
questioning,  but  for  most  girls  the  religious  experiences, 
especially  those  of  the  later  adolescent  years,  bring  great 
happiness  and  peace.  It  is  true  that  on  account  of  the  ab- 
normal sensitiveness  of  conscience  this  newly  found  peace 

1  Lancaster,  Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol.  I,  p.  196. 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  275 

is  sometimes  interrupted  by  the  fear  that  the  girl  has 
committed  some  wrong.  She  sometimes  spends  unhappy 
hours  a  prey  to  such  feelings.  But,  on  the  whole,  God 
is  never  so  real  or  duty  so  simple  as  to  the  newly  awak- 
ened conscience  of  the  adolescent  girl. 

Dreams  and  Visions.  Adolescence  is  the  time  for 
dreams  and  visions.  The  curtain  of  the  future  seems 
drawn  back,  and  the  girl  lives  much  in  the  realm  of  the 
imagination.  If  the  dreams  are  built  on  high  ideals  and 
pure  desires  they  will  prove  a  powerful  uplift.  Professor 
Starbuck,  in  his  book,  The  Psychology  of  Religious  Ex- 
perience, refers  to  the  period  of  adolescence  as  the  time 
when  religion  changes  from  a  purely  formal  thing  to  a 
vital  and  living  force.  Five  out  of  six  young  people  pass 
through  unusual  religious  experiences  at  this  time.  These 
experiences  differ  both  in  their  nature  and  their  intensity 
but  they  have  the  common  characteristic  of  being  sudden 
and  self -revealing.  There  comes  perhaps  for  the  first 
time  a  sense  of  incompleteness,  of  imperfection  and  of 
sin.  The  feelings  range  from  the  highest  exaltation  to 
the  lowest  depression.  The  adolescent  lives  now  on  the 
"Delectable  Mountains"  and  now  in  the  "Valley  of  Hu- 
miliation." 

Spiritual  Struggle.  Some  of  the  many  young  people 
who  have  been  questioned  by  Professor  Starbuck  express 
themselves  as  having  a  sense  of  struggling  with  the  au- 
thority and  majesty  of  the  world  which  is  bearing  in  upon 
them  from  every  side.  "In  this  sudden  budding  of  con- 
science and  perception,  of  the  moral  worth  of  things,  we 
are  tracing  one  step  further  the  ethical  root  of  religion/' 
Girls  are  found,  as  a  rule,  to  suffer  more  from  brooding 


276  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

depression  and  morbid  introspection,  while  boys  struggle 
more  with  rebellion  against  their  environment  and  are  ex- 
ercised in  the  effort  to  control  their  passions.  If  there  is 
no  religious  awakening  there  is  usually  a  quickened  ethi- 
cal sense.  Here  the  power  of  insight  is  often  in  advance 
of  activity.  In  other  words,  the  girl  sees  what  is  right 
before  she  has  the  power  to  make  her  behavior  conform  to 
it.  Her  daily  life  falls  below  her  ideals. 

Mother  in  the  Background.  In  the  development  of  the 
religious  ideas  the  mother  should  not  take  too  prominent 
part.  If  she  thinks  her  child's  ideals  are  too  high,  she 
should  not  humiliate  her  by  telling  her  so.  For,  after  all, 
the  girl  may  be  more  nearly  right  than  the  mother,  and 
the  enthusiasm  of  youth  may  help  both  mother  and  daugh- 
ter to  a  higher  spiritual  plane.  Instead  of  allowing  the 
girl  to  lower  her  ideals  it  is  better  to  help  her  to  live  up 
to  them.  This  is  a  time  when  she  especially  needs  sym- 
pathy. A  blunder  may  prove  fatal,  but  care  and  love  will 
reap  a  harvest  in  the  coming  years. 

6.    THE  EDUCATION  OF  GIRLS 

The  majority  of  parents  accept  the  public  school  as  the 
instrumentality  through  which  their  growing  daughters 
shall  be  educated.  Hence  it  is  not  until  the  daughter  has 
finished  the  course  offered  by  the  common  school  and  stands 
looking  out  into  the  future,  that  her  education  assumes 
the  aspect  of  a  problem.  What  shall  we  say  of  the  higher 
education  of  girls?  Some  one  has  called  the  effort  of 
women  to  gain  the  privileges  of  higher  education  a  "holy 
war/'  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  many  struggles 
that  have  been  waged  in  modern  times  against  ignorance 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  277 

and  custom.  But  the  battle  is  now  essentially  won.  The 
question,  whether  the  girl  should  receive  a  higher  educa- 
tion, is  now  looked  upon  as  the  same  question  in  regard  to 
the  boy. 

Circumstances  Not  Sex  the  True  Guide.  That  is,  it 
depends  upon  individual  needs  and  tastes,  with  some  re- 
gard to  the  circumstances  of  the  parents,  and  the  probable 
future  circumstances  of  the  boy  or  girl.  It  is  probably 
true  that  we  have  not  yet  found  the  best  educational  sys- 
tem for  either  boy  or  girl. 

The  courses  of  our  high  schools  and  colleges  will  un- 
doubtedly keep  changing  and  improving  in  usefulness  and 
adaptability.  It  falls  essentially  within  the  province  of 
all  intelligent  mothers  of  today  to  inquire  what  college 
courses  of  the  present  time  are  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
their  sons  and  daughters.  The  subject  must  not  be  con- 
sidered in  a  narrow  or  technical  sense,  but  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  greatest  usefulness  and  happiness  of  all. 
United  effort  upon  the  part  of  college  women  will  effect 
a  more  perfect  adaptation  of  college  courses  to  the  needs 
of  our  girls  especially.  We  rejoice  in  the  equality  of 
educational  opportunities  which  exist  in  the  United  States 
today,  and  the  question  as  to  where  you  or  I  shall  send  our 
daughters  will  be  answered  by  the  personal  needs  of  the 
daughters.  In  a  general  way,  then,  we  may  say  that  the 
key  to  the  education  of  an  adolescent  girl  is  the  ideal  which 
we  have  for  her  future  life. 

The  Mothers  Ideal  -for  Her  Daughter.  Every  mother 
has  her  own  ideals  for  her  daughter's  future.  We  must 
have  a  care  that  we  look  first  to  the  girl's  best  good,  and 
that  we  do  not  allow  our  personal  desires  or  ambitions  to 


278  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

stand  in  the  way  of  it.  The  woman  of  the  present  day  has 
greater  freedom  than  the  woman  of  the  last  generation. 
Progress  demands  this  for  her  and  she  is  better  for  it. 
Keeping  these  new  conditions  in  mind,  the  mother  of  to- 
day should  see  to  it  that  during  the  impressionable  years 
of  adolescence  her  daughter  receives  such  care  as  will  fit 
her  to  assume  the  responsibilities  and  to  use  the  discretion 
demanded  by  her  larger  freedom. 

7.    GENERAL  SUMMARY 

This  very  brief  and  incomplete  discussion  of  adoles- 
cence will  perhaps  be  suggestive  of  the  great  number  of 
lines  along  which  the  care  and  interest  of  the  parents  must 
extend  in  order  to  embrace  all  the  opportunities  which 
present  themselves.  In  closing  it  may  be  well  to  gather 
together  in  condensed  form,  the  chief  suggestions  for 
parents  which  have  been  made  in  the  two  chapters  treat- 
ing of  this  period. 

1.  Be  watchful  and  sympathetic.     Consider  no  time 
lost  which  is  spent  with  your  child.    The  mother  who  un- 
derstands things  which  the  child  does  not,  must  take  the 
initiative  in  many  matters.    Do  not  be  discouraged  or  im- 
patient if  your  efforts  do  not  always  seem  to  be  appreci- 
ated.   If  they  are  not  appreciated  now  they  will  some  day 
be  appreciated  more  than  you  can  know. 

2.  Let  the  family  discipline  be  elastic  but  not  lax. 

3.  Encourage  individuality.    The  development  of  the 
child's  idea  of  self  is  one  of  the  marked  characteristics  of 
the  period,  and  interference  with  it  will  be  disastrous. 
Try  to  secure  that  kind  of  individuality  which  shall  be 
founded  upon  right  and  in  harmony  with  the  home  life. 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  279 

The  child  must  learn  that  when  he  comes  to  be  treated  as 
an  adult,  he  must  share  the  responsibilities  of  the  home, 
as  do  the  other  adult  members  of  the  household.  No 
parent  who  has  had  any  experience  will  discredit  the  diffi- 
culties and  the  delicacy  of  this  transition  period  whether 
the  adolescent  is  a  boy  or  a  girl. 

4.  High  ideals  in  the  mind  of  the  adolescent  boy  or 
girl  will  prove  a  tower  of  strength.     See  that  the  ideals 
are  distinct  and  rightly  applied. 

5.  Watch  the  social  organizations  which  your  children 
form  among  themselves.    Adolescents  are  naturally  gre- 
garious.   They  form  little  groups,  remain  together  for  a 
time,  separate  and  form  other  groups.    Do  not  think  that 
they  are  fickle  and  unstable  if  this  happens.    It  is  nature's 
way.     However,  it  will  be  safer  and  better  for  all  con- 
cerned if  these  groups  of  young  people  can  have  as  a 
director  and  patron  a  sympathetic  adult.    Young  people's 
organizations  are  inevitable,  but  by  themselves  are  unstable 
and  not  always  safe. 

Besides  these  categories  of  "do"  and  "don't"  there  are 
"remembers"  which  apply  equally  to  the  girl  and  boy : 

Remember  that  the  power  to  appreciate  is  far  beyond 
the  power  to  express.  Often  we  think  that  our  efforts  in 
behalf  of  our  children  are  thrown  away.  But  could  you 
get  close  to  their  hearts — as  you  sometimes  do,  in  mo- 
ments of  confidence — you  would  find  that  the  measure  of 
appreciation  is  full  and  perhaps  running  over.  Some  in- 
explicable but  obstinate  barrier  seems  to  block  the  power 
of  expression  and  sometimes  even  impels  the  child  to  be- 
havior which  is  the  very  opposite  of  that  which  he  intends. 
This  lack  of  power  to  express  oneself  comes  to  every  one 


280  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

at  times,  but  during  the  adolescent  period,  with  many  ex- 
periences new  and  strange,  with  the  confusion  of  intellect 
that  is  stranger  still,  the  power  of  expression  fails  to  keep 
pace  with  the  rest,  and  on  this  account  the  girl  is  often 
thought  unappreciative,  and  the  boy  is  declared  thought- 
less and  rude. 

2.  Remember,  again,  that  in  adolescence  the  soul  is 
being  equipped  for  time  and  for  eternity.     We  parents 
who  take  such  pains  to  have  our  homes  beautifully  fur- 
nished— homes  which  we  and  our  children  occupy  but 
for  a   few  short  years — we  who  clothe  our  children's 
bodies  with  care  and  taste,  how  are  we  furnishing  their 
souls?    Souls  are  not  like  rooms.     They  will  not  stand 
vacant  even  though  we  take  no  pains  to  furnish  them. 
Some  one  else  will  step  in  and  furnish  them  if  we  have 
left  them  barren,  and  this  furniture  may  be  neither  useful 
nor  beautiful. 

3.  Remember  that  the  home  is  a  refuge  and  a  resting 
place.     The  present  life  is  a  life  of  action,  and  as  we 
strive  to  keep  pace  with  it  there  should  always  be  one 
place  where  we  can  find  an  opportunity  for  the  building 
up  of  what  has  been  torn  down,  one  way  in  which  we 
may  lessen  the  strain  of  the  world  about  us.    This  place 
is  the  home;  this  way  is  to  make  the  atmosphere  of  the 
home  an  atmosphere  of  repose.    Let  us  make  our  homes 
places  where  we  and  our  children  may  rest  and  think  and 
plan  and  regain  the  harmony  and  clear-headedness  which 
we  so  often  lose.     If  the  homes  of  this  generation  are 
not  made  centers  of  harmony  and  restfulness,  the  children 
of  this  generation  will  not  be  equipped  to  go  out  into 
the  complex  life  which  is  already  crowding  upon  them 


THE  ADOLESCENT  GIRL  281 

and  hold  their  own.  They  must  do  more  than  hold  their 
own,  for  it  is  to  the  children  of  educated  parents  that 
society  must  look  to  raise  the  standard  of  manhood  and 
of  womanhood  and  of  Christian  citizenship. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  CHILD  STUDY 

1.  What  is  the  general  aim  of  the  present  chapter? 

2.  What  is  the  difference  between  adolescent  manifestations  in 
the  boy  and  the  girl  ? 

3.  Give  the  reasons  for  this. 

4.  What  are  the  general  physical  signs  of  adolescence  in  the  girl? 

5.  Why  is  the  mother's  part  imperative? 

6.  Describe  the  change  in  the  organs  of  reproduction  at  adoles- 
cence. 

7.  Why  is  the  health  of  the  girl  more  likely  to  be  affected  at 
this  time  than  the  health  of  the  boy  ? 

8.  Describe  the  dangers  of  imperfect  development. 

9.  Name  some  prominent  manifestations  of  ill-health  often  shown 
by  the  adolescent  girl. 

10.  What  is  said  in  this  chapter  in  regard  to  Hysteria?     Con- 
stipation ?    Exercise  ? 

11.  Do  you  consider  that  the  present  mode    of    dress    of    the 
American  woman  is  adequate  for  health,  comfort,  and  protection? 
Why? 

12.  Describe  the  adolescent  trait  of  introspection. 

13.  How  does  the  adolescent  girl  show  her  emotional  sensitive- 
ness? 

14.  What  do  you  consider  the  proper  relation  between  the  social 
life  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  home  and  school  life  on  the  other, 
for  the  growing  girl? 

15.  Describe  the  religious  awakening  of  the  adolescent. 

16.  What  should  be  the  mother's  attitude  towards  her  daughter 
at  this  time? 


282  STUDIES  IN  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

17.  What  do  you  think  should  control  the  mother's  plan  for  her 
daughter's  education? 

18.  What  are  the  five  points  in  summing  up? 

19.  What  are  the  three  things  to  be  remembered? 

20.  Do  you  think  the  home  life  of  the  average  family  is  meeting 
the  social  needs  of  the  present  time?    Why? 


INDEX 


Addams,  Jane,  242. 

Adenoids,  127. 

Adolescence,  225;  mother's  prepa- 
ration for,  227;  boy's  new  needs, 
229;  general  characteristics  of 
period,  223;  later  physical 
changes,  236;  greatest  danger 
during,  239;  mental  phases  of, 
246;  changes  during,  261;  men- 
tal changes  during,  269. 

Adolescent  girl,  health  of,  263; 
education  of,  276. 

Angell,  J.  R.,  167,  173,  201. 

Anger,  178. 

Attention,  power  of,  197. 

Authority,   rebellion  against,   249. 

Baby,  keeping  warm,  21,  23. 
Baldwin,  J.  M.,  158,   159,  167,  193. 
Barnes,  Earl,  165,  217. 
Bashfulness,  157. 
Bathing  the  baby,  15. 
Boastfulness,  105. 
Bottle,  hot-water,  22. 
Brain,  building,  92. 
Breathing,  25,  60. 
Burnham,  W.  H.,  60. 

Cabot,  Ella  Lyman,   166,  170,  173. 

Carbohydrates,  45. 

Catarrh,  128. 

Chafing,  24. 

Chair,  nursery,  24. 

Chest,  at  birth,  13. 

Child,  a  normal,  40;  a  perfect,  40; 

nervous,  61,  63. 
Child-training,    qualities    needed 

for,  191. 
Chittenden,  R.   H.,   42,   44,  45,   47, 

52. 

Church,  attendance,  220. 
Cigarettes,  137. 
Clothing,  first,  15;  baby,  26;  often 

injurious,  267. 

Coe,  A.  E.,  205,  216,  220,  221. 
Companionship,  95,  152,  244. 
Conscience,  222. 
Constipation,  infant,  23,  136. 
Cortex,  35. 

Crime,  increase  of,  241. 
Cruelty,  106. 
Curiosity,  103. 

Dangers,  of  forced  social  life,  140. 
Day,  Dr.  W.  H.,  219. 


Deafness,  causes  of,  126. 

Diet,  changes  in,  20;  second  year, 

Discipline,  36,  206;  reasoning  used 
in  appeal  to  Intellect,  210;  aim 
in  all,  212;  nature  of  family, 
250. 

Disobedience,  175. 

Ears,  58,  71;  troubles,  59,  125. 

Eating,  54. 

Environment,  73. 

Exercise,  266. 

Eyes,  58,  70,  77;  troubles,  59;  in- 
crease of  troubles,  124;  signs 
and  causes  of,  125. 

Face,  77. 

Fatigue,  66. 

Fats,  46. 

Faults,  children's,  170. 

Fear,  how  to  overcome,  98; 
moral  dangers  of,  102. 

Feeding,  times  of,  19;  night,  19. 

Field,  Walter  Taylor,  154,  155. 

Fighting,  108. 

Food,  for  baby,  15;  care  of,  17; 
how  nourishes,  41;  classes  of, 
43;  grouping  of,  46;  proteid,  47; 
carbohydrates,  47;  fat,  48;  min- 
eral matter  in,  49;  selection  of, 
50;  adaptation  of,  51. 

Forbush,  W.  B.,  154,  171,  206,  226, 
242,  248. 

God,  idea  of,  216. 

Griffith,  J.  P.  C.,  12,  17,  21,  23,  30, 

32,  33,  57,  129,  133. 
Growth,  56. 

Habit,  formation  of,  196;  economy 
of,  198;  physiological  phase  of, 
199;  moral  phase  of,  200. 

Hall,  G.  Stanley,  119,  122,  139,  178, 
241,  247. 

Head,  at  birth,  12;  of  baby,  31, 
76. 

Health,  effect  of  school  life  upon, 
117. 

Home,  significance  of,  190;  func- 
tion of  in  religious  training,  215; 
religious  services  in,  220. 

Hough  and  Sedgwick,  42,  126. 

Imagination,  apparent  untruthful- 
ness  through,  173. 


283 


284 


INDEX 


Imitations,  the  first  training,  192; 
deliberate,  194;  parents'  respon- 
sibility, 195. 

Individuality,  awakening  of,  247. 

Instincts,  97;  for  collecting,  162. 

Interests,  dominant,  160;  bad, 
163. 

Introspection,  247. 

James,  William,  163,  202,  203. 
Judd,  Dr.  C.  H.,  58,  61. 

King,  Irving,  35,  150,  151,  160. 
Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  56,  122. 
Kock,  Fritz,  139. 

Lancaster,  E.  G'.,  246,  274. 

Language,  a  sign  of  brain  devel- 
opment, 79;  general  laws,  82; 
help  in,  88;  baby  talk,  89;  bad, 
107. 

Laziness,  172. 

Limbs,  at  birth,  14. 

Liquor,  237. 

Locomotion,  25. 

Manners,  bad,  171. 

McKeever,  W.  A.,  138. 

Meanness,  174. 

Measurements,  abnormal,  30. 

Measuring  baby,  29. 

Memory,    166;     function    of,    167; 

how    to    strengthen,    168;    drill, 

169. 

Milk,  49. 
Milk  mixture,  17. 
Money,  child's  idea  of,  164. 
Motor-ideals,  123. 
Mouth,  78. 

Muscles,  location  of,  122. 
Muscular  system,  121. 
Music,  156. 

Nails,  29. 

Needs,  first,  11. 

Nerves,  61. 

Nervous,  responses,  91. 

Nervous    system,    72;    and    brain, 

134. 

Nose,  126. 
Nutrition,  41;  good  and  bad,  55. 

Obedience,  197. 

O'Shea,  Dr.  M.  V.,  82,  160,  193. 

Ownership,  104. 

Parent-teachers'  associations,  142. 

Perception,  69. 

Physical  conditions,  116. 

Physical  life,  39. 

Physical  weakening,  75. 

Play,  a  factor  in  mental  develop- 
ment, 90;  timeliness  in,  94;  with 
mother,  95;  adequate,  123. 

Posture,  131. 

Praise,  love  of,  159. 


Preyor,  W.,  14. 

Proteids,  44. 

Punishment,  corporal,  206;  threat- 
ening, 208;  personal  appeal,  209; 
social  appeal,  209. 

Pyorrhea,  131. 

Quarreling,  96. 
Questions,  child's,  151. 

Rankin,  F.  M.,  137. 

Reading,  111;  the  child's  own,  155. 

Records,  80;  of  health  of  a  deli- 
cate girl,  147;  of  a  boy,  148. 

Richards,  Dr.  C.  H.,  219. 

Right,  ideas  of,  216. 

Rowe,  S.  H.,  63,  120,  124,  132,  133, 
138,  145,  146,  163,  168,  199,  200, 
208,  210. 

School,  mother's  relation  to,  110; 
effect  of,  110;  crowding  in,  112; 
school  boards,  144;  conditions  in, 
144. 

School-life,  109;  influence  of,  151. 

Self-consciousness,  75. 

Self-control,  37. 

Self -pollution,  danger  in,  239;  how 
to  conquer,  242. 

Selfishness,  180. 

Sensations,  69. 

Senses,  special  at  birth,  14;  spe- 
cial, 35,  70. 

Sex,  origin  of,  255. 

Sexes,  polarity  of,  250;  differences 
in  manifestation,  257. 

Sharp,  Frank  Chapman,  187. 

Shyness,  74. 

Skin,  at  birth,  13. 

Smile,  first,  82. 

Social  life,  272. 

Society,  139. 

Soft  spots,  12. 

Spine,  curvature  of,  133. 

Stories,  told  by  mother,  153. 

Suggestion,  243;  mental,  272. 

Sunday  School,  221. 

•Swift,  E.  J.,  163. 

Tables,  for  head  and  chest,  32; 
height  and  weight,  33,  57,  120. 

Talk,  learning  to,  81. 

Tanner,  Amy,  157. 

Teasing,  174. 

Teeth,  first,  27;  care  of,  28;  first 
permanent,  128. 

Throat,  58. 

Tobacco,  237. 

Training,  reason  for  apparent 
failure,  213;  religious,  215;  re- 
ligions, time  for,  218. 

Trunk,  lower,  13. 

Truth  and  untruth,  182. 

Tyler,  J.  M.,  12,  13,  22,  31,  43,  62, 
121,  133,  160,  195,  204,  209,  264. 


INDEX  285 


Untruthfulness.  causes  of,  183. 

Vnrnltine-    23  Will.       the      function       of,       201; 

strengthening  of,  203;  applying, 

Warner,  Francis,  35,  40,  60,  63,  64,  204 

135    147    265.  Words,  first,  83. 

Watchfulness,'  cause  for,  43.  Writing,  111. 

Weakness,  physical,  75.  Wrong,  ideas  of,  216. 


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Bldg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

•  2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 
(510)642-6753 

•  1  -year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing 
books  to  NRLF 

•  Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4 
days  prior  to  due  date. 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 
SENT  ON  ILL 


FEB  2  ^  1999 


U.  C.  BERKELEY 


12,000(11/95) 


601395 


HQ 

771- 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


